1 republic of uzbekistan ministry of higher and secondary specialised education

particular language polysynthetic is complicated by the fact that 
morpheme and word boundaries are not always clear cut, and languages 
may be highly synthetic in one area but less synthetic in other areas ( 
e.g. verbs and nouns in Southern Athabaskan languages or Inuit 
languages). Many polysynthetic languages display complex 
evidentiality and/or mirativity systems in their verbs.These languages 
are observed in Americas, Australia, Siberia, and New Guinea; 
however, there are also examples in other areas.The concept became 
part of linguistic typology with the work of Edward Sapir, who used it 
as one of his basic typological categories.Recently. Mark C. Baker has 
suggested formally defining polysinthesis as a macro-parameter within 
Noam Chomsky’s principles and parameters theory of grammar.
2) Isomorphism and allomorphism. Isomorphism is the similarity in 
the structure of language (I will read – Я буду читать). The category 
of number in English, Uzbek and Russian is an isomorphic feature. 
Besides, isomorphism in English, Uzbek and Russian is the existence 
of consonants and vowels, assimilation, the categories of person, 
tense, parts of speech, the existence of sentences. For ex. isomorphic 
features of the interrogative pronouns. In both languages there are 
interrogative pronouns that are used for asking person:who-kim. The 
English interrogative pronoun who has the category of case: 
whose/whom; the Uzbek demonstrative pronouns kim,nima have the 
categories of number, possession and case: kim-kimlar;
kimim/nimam ; kimlarimiz/nimalarimiz ; kimni/nimani 
;kimdan/nimadan; kimga/nimaga. In both languages there is a 
genitive case form of the interrogative pronouns:whose/kimning 

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Allomorphism is the property possessed by certain substances of 
assuming a different form while remaining unchanged in 
constitution:In English there two case forms, in Uzbek –six; In 
English interrogative pronoun who has here case forms , in Uzbek the 
interrogative pronoun kim is used in six case forms and etc. 
3) Language universals – regularities, characteristic to all, or the 
majority of languages. The systems of vowels and consonants are 
present in all languages. Present tense form exists in all languages as 
well. Universals common to all or to the majority of languages are 
called absolute universals. 
4) Model languages - The language with which other language under 
investigation is compared is called model language. If you compare 
native and foreign languages, your native language will be a model one. 
2. The problem of the segmental level and its units 
The aim of typological phonetics is to identify and investigate the 
isomorphic and allomorphic features in the system of speech sounds in 
the English and native languages. The aim of typology is to identify the 
systems of phonemes of the contrasted languages. Typological 
phonetics and phonology have a common subject matter (combinability 
and functioning) of sounds (phonemes) in words and syllables 
(segmental) level. And the super segmental level includes word stress, 
sentence stress and tones melody in syntagmas. 
Phoneme is an abstract linguistic unit, it combines all the features which 
the sound actually posses in speech. Sounds are called phones and they 
are the manifestation of one and the same phoneme. 
Phoneme is a class of physically similar sounds which perform the same 
function. They may be variants of one and the same class (allophones). 
Phonemes and allophones are segmental units of speech. Different 
languages have different phonological systems. Languages in which the 
system of consonant is more developed than the system of vowels are 
called consonantal languages (in Russian there are 35 consonans) 
Phonemic stock of languages differs not only in quantity but in quality 
as well. In some languages there are long and short vowels (Eng) or 
long and short consonants (Ukr). These consonants’ contrast between 
two or more phonemes is called a phonological opposition (cat-cut, 
seat-sit). The functions of phonemes in the contrasted languages are 
common. 
They 
are: 
1. The constitutive is the ability of phonemes to constitute separate 

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morphemes 
and 
words. 
2. The distinguishing is the ability to differentiate the meaning of the 
words: coat, goat, boat;
3. Word-stress and its functions in English and Russian 
Super segmental means (word stress and intonation) together with 
segmental means (phonemes and allophones) form the phonological 
level 
of 
the 
language.
By stress or accent we mean prominence given to 1 syllable in a word 
or word combination. Like the syllable word stress belongs to absolute 
universals. Its functions are: 
• Constitutive is due to which the syllables when arrange in a definite 
stress pattern form a definite word (conduct – conduct, present – 
present, пóра – порá, зáмок – замок , olma’-o’lma) 
• Distinctive – word stress helps to differentiate between word groups 
and words: 
blue bottle; blue, bottle; qizil gul; qizil ,gul
Functions of stress in compared languages are different. In English 
and Uzbek languages word stress helps to differentiate between nouns 
and verbs:’present-pre’sent, olma’-o’lma. But the number of such 
pairs is limited. There are about 135 such words differentiating the 
lexical meaning by the change of the place of the stress in the word in 
English. In Russian word stress helps to express different categorial 
meanings and to form new words as well: засыпа’ть( несов.вид)-
засы’пать( сов. вид), замо’к –за’мок.
Some polysemantic English words have primarily and secondary 
stress (opportunity). 
The number of words with 2 primarily stresses is much larger in 
English. Due to the prefixes un-in-,dis-,sub-, under-, and others, 
forming prominent syllables.
Stress may be fixed if it occurs on a definite syl. or it can be moveable 
(can change its position). According to the place in the majority of cases 
English stress is fixed. It occurs on the initial syllable – power-
powerful.
Universal: by its nature and functions the stress can be utterance-stress, 
which can be observed in the contrasted languages in 2 types: 
1. Logical stress- points out a word or a word combination of more 
importance than others. (It was John, not Jack). 

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2. Emphatic stress- expresses emotions and is much stronger than 
logical stress. Emotions may be positive (happiness, love, joy, luck, 
admiration) and negative (indignation, sadness): What a nice weaher!
How awful, what? – that is impossible. 
4. Historical outline of typological investigation 
1. German school of Linguistics. 
In the 17th – 18th centuries European scientists pointed to the existence 
of some common features in different languages. Only the beginning of 
the 19th century with its historic and comparative method is 
characterized by a development of European Linguistics. One of the 
first linguists to have made a systematic approach to the analysis of 
structurally different languages was Friedrich Shlegel (1772 – 1829).
first to notice Grimm’s law, Shlegel was a pioneer in In Indo-European 
studies,comparative linguistics and morphological typology, who 
published in 1819 the first theory linking the Indo-Iranian and German 
languages under the Aryan group.He compared Sanscrit with Latin , 
Greek, Persian and German ,noting many similarities in vocabulary and 
grammar. He singled out 2 clearly distinguished groups: 
1) affixal languages (Turkic languages); 
2) inflexinal languages (Germanic). 
Later this classification was perfected by his brother August Wilhelm 
Shlegel. On the basis of the same morphological criteria he singled out 
3 groups of languages: 
1) amorphous languages( his term); 
2) the affixal languages; 
3) the flexional languages. 
Wilhelm von Humboldt is considered to be the founder of typology 
(1767 – 1835). He is considered as a linguist who made important 
contributions to the philosophy of language, ethnolinguistics and to the 
theory and practice of education . He was the architect of the 
Humboldtian educational ideal, which was used from the beginning in 
Prussia as a model for its system of public education , as well as in the 
United States and Japan. On the basis of morphological criteria of 
languages , he classified all the languages in the following way: 
1) isolating languages (like Chinese);W. Humboldt changed the term 
amorphous languages suggested by August Shlegel by the term 
isolating, saying that the language can’t be without form 
2) agglutinative languages (like those of the Turkic family); 

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3) flexional languages (Indo-European); 
4) incorporative languages of the American Indians. 
His followers in linguistics were Franz Bopp (1791 – 1867) and August 
Schleicher(1821 – 1868). 
They introduced a new approach to the typological investigation of the 
languages on the basis of the root structure of the word. The “family – 
tree” theory – “Schtaum – baum” was introduced by Schleicher, who 
sort out languages as an organism that can grow and decay, whose 
changes could be analyzed using the methods of the natural sciences. 
Typological investigations of the first part of the 17th century were 
mostly focussed on the morphological classification of languages. 
Schleicher’s great work was A Compendium of the Comparative 
Grammar of the Indo-European languages in which he attempted to 
reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European language to show how Indo-
European might have looked, he created a short tale, Shleicher’s fable, 
to exemplify the reconstructed vocabulary and aspects of Indo-
European 
society 
inferred 
from 
it. 
The next step in the development of typology was made by G. 
Shteyntal(1823 – 1899). The object of his studies was not word taken 
separately, he investigated the syntactic connection in different 
languages. So he switched from morphology to syntax. 
2. American school of Linguistics 
The 20th century typological investigations are characterized by some 
new approaches to the contrasted study of languages and their 
classification. American scientist Eduard Sapir(1884-1939) is the 
founder of American structuralism. He was anthropologist-linguist 
,dealt with the relationship between languages and extra-linguistic 
reality (language and thought). All this made him one of the founders 
of ethnolinguistics. He is considered to be a founder of a new trend in 
typology. Some languages distant in location could in the course of time 
acquire common features. Sapir put forward 3 criteria in language 
classification: 
1) the degree of cohesion between the root morphemes and the affixal 
morphemes; 
2) the degree of synthesis (the ability of a word to combine and express 
different lexical and grammatical meanings as inflexional languages). 
3) the nature of grammatical processes by means of which the 
morphemes are joined in the word (isolation, agglutination). In this way 

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the linguists singled out 4 types of languages. Sapir was the first who 
treated a language material as a system. 
3. Prague school of Linguistics 
In 1926 a group of well known linguists established the Prague school 
of Linguistics. Its most representative people were a group of Russian 
linguists: Roman Yakobson, Nikolay Trubetzkoy, A.V. Isachenko and 
others. The primary interest of them was phonological theory. The 
leading light in this domain was Nikolay Trubetzkoy(1890-1939) , a 
professor in Viena. He was the founder of morpho-phonology. He 
worked out typology of phonemic and morpho-phonemic systems of 
languages based on opposition. He made important contributions to the 
notion of the phoneme. Prague school phonology succeeded in placing 
the notion of the phoneme in the centre of Linguistic theory as one of 
the 
most 
fundamental 
units. 
Great research work in phonological typology was carried on by A. V. 
Isachenko, who investigated the Slavonic languages on the qualitative 
representation of vowels and on the existence or non-existence 
palatalized consonants. As a result 2 types of languages were singled 
out: 
1) Vocalic languages; 
2) Consonantal languages. 
The vocalic types of languages are: Serbian and Slovenian. Their 
features 
are:
1. some consonants have historically changed into vowels and some 
have become syllable phonemes; 
2. languages in which there occurs an inclusion of vowels between 
consonants; 
3. languages in which the double consonants have reduced to single 
consonants. 
The consonantal type of language have the following features: 
1. the existence of the binary opposition of palatalized consonants 
verses non-palatalized one; 
2. the loss of the syllable – forming consonants; 
3. the retention (being preserved) of the double consonants. 
4. Russian school of Linguistics 

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Russian typological investigations began at the end of the 19th century 
and the representatives were N.Ya.Marr and Ivan Meshchaninov (1883 
– 1967). Ivan Meshchaninov was a Soviet linguist and ethnographer 
who studied the syntactical relations (predicative, objective) in different 
languages. Meshchaninov’s syntactical typology includes 3 classes: 
1. passive structure languages (Chukot lang. and lang. of American 
Indians). They are characterized by incorporation, such syntactical 
structures comprised neither the subject nor the object not having any 
definite grammatical form. They are united in a single complex word 
which is subordinated to a leading word, a verb. In this language it is 
impossible to differentiate between transitive and intransitive verbs; 
2. ergative structure languages are characterized by the so-called 
negative construction. Predicate has dual syntactical connection with 
subject. It agrees with the subject and governs it at a time. The subject 
is used in special the so-called ergative case. We can come close to this 
phenomena in Russian sentences, such as Мальчика cбило машиной. 
In this sentences the subject is not used in Nominative case but in 
ergative 
case. 
3. nominative structure languages are characterized by the usage of 
subject in nominative case, irrespective of transitive or intransitive verb 
in the function of the predicate. I. Meshchaninov considered Indo-
European, Turkic, Mongolian languages to be nominative structure 
languages.
5. Typological characteristics of the super-segmental means. Typology 
of intonation system. 
Super-segmental means (word stress and intonation) together with 
segm. means (phonemes and allophones) form the phonological level 
of the l-ge. By stress or accent we mean prominence given to one syl. 
of a word or a word combination. Like the syl., word stress belongs to 
absolute universals. 
Intonation as well as word stress belongs to super-segmental means of 
language. It’s one of the most important means of differentiation of 
meaning. 
The most important components of intonation in the contrasted 
languages are speech, melody,stress, sentence and utterance . 
The main functions of intonation are isomorphic. They are: 
1) sentence or utterance stress phoneme (forming); 
2) sentence or utterance delimiting; 
3) distinctive (helps to differentiate types of utterance); 

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4) attitudinal (to express differential model and pragmatic meanings). 
Syntagma (sense group or intonation group) is the basic unit of into-
logical level. This notion was introduced by Lev Shcherba(1880-1944). 
Syntagma is a word or a group of words which form a shortest possible 
unit in a sentence from the point of view of meaning, grammatical 
structure and information. It doesn’t have to coincide with a sentence. 
It can coincide with a word. It has the following characteristics: 
- it has at least one accented word, which carries change in pitch 
(falling, rising tone); 
- it is pronounced at a certain rate, things that are less important are 
pronounced faster; 
- it has a special voice quality – timbre. 
The elements of the pitch and stress pattern of the intonation group are 
as follows: the most important is a nuclear tone, a stressed syllable with 
a marked change in pitch. Post nuclear, unstressed and partial stressed 
syllables are called tail. 
So we can speak about two variants of terminal tone: 
- nuclear 
- nuclear + tail 
The terminal tone may be persisted by a scale, a serious of stressed and 
unstressed syllables beginning with the first stressed one. The first 
stressed syllable is called head, unstressed syllables before head are 
called pre-head. In English the system of intonation groups was worked 
out by Ernst Frideryk Konrad Koener (1939) and Arnold Gordon 
Frederick. 
6. Syntactic process, their types and ways of realization 
Syntactic processes are various in contrasted languages and are realized 
only in word-groups and sentences. The realization of these processes 
may be realized by isomorphic and allomorphic ways, they are as 
follows: 1. Extension is achieved in both contrasted languages through 
adding subordinate components to an element that is the head/nucleus, 
i.e. subordinating in the syntaxeme. Extension in English may be 
achieved both by syndetic, i.e.explicit, synthetic or analytical means or 
(which is more often in English) asyndetically, i.e. only by way of 
placement of components. Eg: this book – these books, to see somebody 
- to see him. 

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As to their structure, word-groups can be unextended, i.e. consisting of 
two notional words (read well, nice flowers, good enough) and 
extended which consist of more than two notional words, e.g. to go to 
work every day. Extension may be achieved in English with the help of 
asyndetic clustering of nouns : school library -- school library books -- 
new school library books -- school library books readers. 
Ways of realisation of syntactic processes achieved through extension: 
Apposition: a woman doctor, the city of Kiey/London, Shevchenko, the 
poet; Шевченко-поэт. 
Detachment is one more common way of external syntactic extension 
that is presumably of isomorphic nature in most languages. Detached 
syntactic process in English may happen by any secondary part of the 
sentence and detachment is achieved through extension 
by means of subordination: They're (Negroes) just like children , just as 
easy-going, and always singing and laughing(D.Parker). 
Specification. This kind of syntactic process presents a way of syntactic 
extension in English which is achieved via a syntactic element/part of 
the sentence usually modified by one or more other complementing 
elements of the same nature and syntactic function. "I'm not very tall, 
just average. 
Expansion is usually achieved by addition (termed so by Georgy 
Pocheptsov). Formed in this way (through addition) strings of 
components usually function as homogeneous parts of the sentence. For 
example, homogeneous subjects: 
The police, the fishmonger, boys going to school, dozens of people , 
десятки людей,……. 
Representation (репрезентація) represents a kind of reduction in 
which the component of a syntaxeme is used to present the content of 
the whole syntactic unit, which remains in the preceding syntaxeme but 
its meaning is implicitly represented by some element. For example: "I 
don't know if he's hungry, but I am." (I. Baldwin) Here the linking verb 
am in the closing co-ordinate clause (but I am) represents the whole 
subordinate clause "if he's hungry". 
Contamination is a process in which two syntaxemes merge into one 
predicative unit as in the following sentence: The moon rose red. This 
means: The moon rose + she was red.
Compression represents a syntactic process which is closely connected 
with reduction and with the secondary predication complex. This 

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syntactic process is most often observed in English with the nominative 
absolute participial constructions: He stood beside me in silence, his 
candle in his hand. (C. Doyle)- Nominative Absolute Construction; He 
stood beside me in silence, holding his candle in his hand- Nominative 
Absolute Participial Construcion. 
There exist four types of syntactic relations that are also realized in 
different languages partly via different means. These are: 
1) predicative relations 
2) objective relations 
3) attributive relations 
4) various adverbial relations 
a) primary predicative relations and b) secondary predicative relations. 
I. Primary predication is universal. It finds its realization between the 
subject and predicate in any two-member sentence : "I never said I was 
a beauty"-he laughed 
Secondary predicative relation is formed in English by verbals in 
connection with other nominal parts of speech: He stood by the creek 
and heard it ripple over the stones(Objecive Infinitive Construcion). 
Objective relations. They are directed by the action of the transitive verb 
on some object, which may be either a life or lifeless component. The 
notions of seeing/hearing somebody or something of being given smth. 
by somebody, etc. are pertained to each single language and to all 
languages of the world irrespective of their structural/typological 
differences . Depending on the concrete language, these relations may 
have different/unlike forms of expression: give a book to Peter) 
Attributive relations are formed in all languages between adjuncts and 
head words (subordinating parts) of nominal word-groups. 
Adverbial relations in compared languages are created both in co-
ordinate and in subordinate word-groups to express different adverbial 
meanings. Co-ordinate word-groups expressing adverbial relations may 
be a) substantival: in winter or in summer (time) b) adverbial: quickly 
and well (manner or attendant circumstances); neither seldom nor often
(time or frequency).