1st trend is translation history

1. By Borrowings
The borrowed words may be either transliterated or transcribed, e.g. ale –эль, roastbeef – ростбиф, sweater – свитер (transliterated borrowings). Parliament – парламент, striptease – стриптиз, speaker – спикер, know-how – ноу-хау, establishment – истэблишмент (transcribed borrowings).
2. By translation loans
House of Commons – Палата Общин, backbencher – заднескамеечник, brain trust – мозговой трест.
3. By Descriptive or Interpreting Translation
Landslide – победа на выборах с огромным перевесом голосов;
a stringer (америк.) – частично занятый корреспондент, труд которого оплачивается из расчета количества слов;
a conservationist (environmentalist) – человек, озабоченный загрязнением или уничтожением окружающей среды.


25. Antonymic translation
Antonymic translation is employed for the sake of achieving faithfulness in conveying content or the necessary expressiveness of sense units. It represents a way of rendering when an affirmative in structure language unit (word, word-combination or sentence) is conveyed via a negative in sense or structure but identical in content language unit, or vice versa: a negative in sense or structure sense unit is translated via an affirmative sense unit. E.g. to have quite a few friends - мати багато (немало) друзів; mind your own business - не втручайся не в свої справи; take it easy - не хвилюйся; not infrequently - часто; я не нездужую нівроку - І feel perfectly well.
The antonymic device is employed in the following cases:
1. when in the target language there is no direct equivalent for the sense unit of the source language. For example, the noun «inferiority» and the adjective «inferior» (like the verb phrase «to be inferior») have no single-word equivalents in Ukrainian. So their lexical meaning can be conveyed either in a descriptive way or with the help of their antonyms «superiority», «superior»: The defeat of the Notts in last season's cup semi-finals was certainly the result of their physical and tactical inferiority... Поразка клубу «Ноттінгем Форест» у торішньому півфінальному матчі на кубок країни була наслідком переваги їхніх супротивників у фізичній і тактичній підготовці.
The meaning of some English word-groups can also be conveyed in Ukrainian antonymically only: Baines was sitting in his shirt-sleeves. Бейнз сидів без піджака. Do you mind this? Ви не заперечуєте?
2. When the sense unit of the source language has two negations of its own which create an affirmation: In those clothes she was by no means non-elegant. У цьому вбранні вона була досить елеґантна.
3. In order to achieve the necessary expressiveness in narration: I don't think it will hurt you. Думаю, вам воно не зашкодить. A shell fell close. Неподалік вибухнув снаряд.
4. In order to avoid the use of the same or identical structures close to each other in a text (stylistic aim and means): She was a woman of character. Вона була жінкою не без характеру. Most of the staff is not away. Більшість співробітників ще на роботі. Savina said nothing. Савіна промовчала.


26. Unit of translation
Unit Of Translation - The smallest entity in a text that carries a discrete meaning. It varies all the time, ranging from individual words through phrases and sentences right up to entire paragraphs.
Linguistic hierarchy:
1. phoneme/grapheme
2. morpheme
3. word
4. phrase/word combination
5. sentence
6. text
Levels of translation:
1. phonemic level
2. morphemic level
3. word level
4. phrase/word combination level
5. sentence level
6. text level
27. The Levels of Equivalence (Komisarov’s theory)
The theory of levels of equivalence is the model of translation based on the assumption that relations of equivalence are established between the analogues levels of the contents of the SL and TL texts.
V.N. Komisarov distinguishes the following levels of equivalence viewed as different stages of semantic similarity between the TL and SL texts:
1. the level of language signs (words)
2. the level of the utterance (syntactic structures)
3. the level of the structure of information
4. the level of the description (identification) of the situation
5. the level of the aim of communication.
The aim of the process of translation is to convey the whole contents of the SL text. To achieve this aim it is necessary to establish the relations of ultimate (maximum) equivalence between the corresponding levels.
The mechanism of the theory of translation is the following:
At the first stage an interpreter consecutively determines all the levels of the contents of the SL text starting from language signs to the aim of communication.
At the second stage using the language code of the TL text the interpreter studies the level hierarchy in the reverse order. He tries to determine whether each level of the text contents presents the final variant of translation. In case any level requires some definite forms the interpreter chooses the variant of translation irrespective of the SL text. If there is no limit of this kind the interpreter starts to choose variants of translation on the level of language signs trying to establish relations of equivalence with the corresponding level of the SL text. The variant chosen by the interpreter should not contradict the contents of the higher levels. In case it’s impossible to establish the relations of equivalence between the units on the level of language signs the interpreter shifts to the next level and so on. Thus, the units of the SL and TL texts will be equivalent to each other on different levels of the contents. The upper limit of translatability will be the equivalence on the first level (the level of language signs) and vice verse – the lower limit will be on the upper level (the level of the aim of communication). At the same time equivalence on the lower level automatically implies the equivalence on the higher level.
The theory of levels of equivalence overcomes the incompleteness of the denotational and transformational models of translation. It describes this process completely, divides the semantic complex and gives the criteria for the general evaluation of the translation quality.


28. Ways of conveying referential meaning
As one of the main tasks of translation is to render the exact meaning of words, it is important to consider here the three types of lexical meaning which can be distinguished. They are: referential, emotive and stylistic.