A course In Modern English Lexicology

§ 29. Classification
ferent points of view and consequently may be
classified according to different principles. They may be viewed from the point of view: 1) of general relationship and degree of semantic independence of components; 2) of the parts of speech compound words represent; 3) of the means of composition used to link the two ICs together; 4) of the type of ICs that are brought together to form a compound; 5) of the correlative relations with the system of free word-groups.
Each type of compound words based on the above-mentioned principles should also be described from the point of view of the degree of its potential power, i.e. its productivity, its relevancy to the system of Modern English compounds. This description must aim at finding and setting a system of ordered structural and semantic rules for productive types of compound words on analogy with which an infinite number of new compounds constantly appear in the language.
From the point of view of degree of semantic
§ 30. Relations between
the ICs of Compounds
independence there are two types of relation-
ship between the ICs of compound words that
are generally recognised in linguistic literature: the relations of coordina-tion and subordination, and accordingly compound words fall into two classes: c o o r d i n a t i v e c o m p o u n d s (often termed copula-tive or additive) and s u b o r d i n a t i v e (often termed determinative).
In c o o r d i n a t i v e compounds the two ICs are semantically equally important as in fighter-bomber oak-tree, girl-friend, Anglo-American. The constituent bases belong to the same class and most often to the same semantic group. Coordinative compounds make up a comparatively small group of words. Coordinative compounds fall into three groups:
a) R e d u p l i c a t i v e compounds which are made up by the repetition of the same base as in goody-goody, fifty-fifty, hush-hush, pooh- pooh. They are all only partially motivated.
b) Compounds formed by joining t h e p h o n i c a l l y v a r i -
a t e d r h y t h m i c t w i n f o r m s which either alliterate with the same initial consonant but vary the vowels as in chit-chat, zig-zag, sing-song, or rhyme by varying the initial consonants as in clap-trap, a walkle-146
talkie, helter-skelter. This subgroup stands very much apart. It is very often referred to pseudo-compounds and considered by some linguists irrelevant to productive word-formation owing to the doubtful morphemic status of their components. The constituent members of compound words of this subgroup are in most cases unique, carry very vague or no lexical meaning of their own, are not found as stems of independently functioning words. They are motivated mainly through the rhythmic doubling of fanci-ful sound-clusters.
Coordinative compounds of both subgroups (a, b) are mostly restricted to the colloquial layer, are marked by a heavy emotive charge and possess a very small degree of productivity.
c) The bases of a d d i t i v e compounds such as” a queen-bee, an actor-manager, unlike the compound words of the first two subgroups, are built on stems of the independently functioning words of the same part of speech. These bases often semantically stand in the genus-species relations. They denote a person or an object that is two things at the same time. A secretary-stenographer is thus a person who is both a stenographer and a secretary, a bed-sitting-room (a bed-sitter) is both a bedroom and a sitting-room at the same time. Among additive compounds there is a specific subgroup of compound adjectives one of ICs of which is a bound root-morpheme. This group is limited to the names of nationalities such as Sino-Japanese, Anglo-Saxon, Afro-Asian, etc.
Additive compounds of this group are mostly fully motivated but have a very limited degree of productivity.
However it must be stressed that though the distinction between coordinative and subordinative compounds is generally made, it is open to doubt and there is no hard and fast border-line between them. On the contrary, the border-line is rather vague. It often happens that one and the same compound may with equal right be interpreted either way — as a coordinative or a subordinative compound, e.g. a woman-doctor may be understood as ‘a woman who is at the same time a doctor’ or there can be traced a difference of importance between the components and it may be primarily felt to be ‘a doctor who happens to be a woman’, cf. also a mother-goose, a clock-tower.
In s u b o r d i n a t i v e compounds the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance but are based on the domination of the head-member which is, as a rule, the second IC. The second IC thus is the semantically and grammatically dominant part of the word, which preconditions the part-of-speech meaning of the whole compound as in stone-deaf, age-long which are obviously adjectives, a wrist-watch, road-building, a baby-sitter which are nouns.
Subordinative compounds make the bulk of Modern English c o m-p ou nd wor ds, a s t o pr oduc t i vit y m ost of t he pr oduc t i ve types are subordinative compounds.
F u n c t i o n a l l y compounds are viewed
§ 3 1 . Different Parts of Speech as words of different parts of speech. It is the head-member of the compound, i.e. its second IC that is indicative of the grammatical and lexical category the compound word belongs to.
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Compound words are found in all parts of speech, but the bulk of compounds are nouns and adjectives. Each part of speech is characterised by its set of derivational patterns and their semantic variants. Compound adverbs, pronouns and connectives are represented by an insignificant number of words, e.g. somewhere, somebody, inside, upright, otherwise, moreover, elsewhere, by means of, etc. No new compounds are coined on this pattern. Compound pronouns and adverbs built on the repeating first and second IC like body, ever, thing make closed sets of words some
body
any
\'7d + \'7d thing
every
one
no
where
On the whole composition is not productive either for adverbs, pronouns or for connectives.
Verbs are of special interest. There is a small group of compound verbs made up of the combination of verbal and adverbial stems that language retains from earlier stages, e.g. to bypass, to inlay, to offset. This type according to some authors, is no longer productive and is rarely found in new compounds.
There are many polymorphic verbs that are represented by morphemic sequences of two root-morphemes, like to weekend, to gooseflesh, to spring-clean, but derivationally they are all words of secondary derivation in which the existing compound nouns only serve as bases for derivation.
They are often termed pseudo-compound verbs. Such polymorphic verbs are presented by two groups:
1) verbs formed by means of conversion from the stems of compound nouns as in to spotlight from a spotlight, to sidetrack from a side-track, to handcuff from handcuffs, to blacklist from a blacklist, to pinpoint from a pin-point;
2) verbs formed by back-derivation from the stems of compound nouns, e.g. to babysit from a baby-sitter, to playact from play-acting, to housekeep from house-keeping, to spring-clean from spring-cleaning.
From the point of view of the means by which
§ 32. Means of Composition the components are joined together compound words may be classified into:
1) Words formed by m e r e l y p l a c i n g o n e c o n -
s t i t u e n t a f t e r a n o t h e r in a definite order which thus is indicative of both the semantic value and the morphological unity of the compound, e.g. rain-driven, house-dog, pot-pie (cf. dog-house, pie-pot).
This means of linking the components is typical of the majority of Modern English compounds in all parts of speech.
As to the order of components, subordinative compounds are often classified as: a) a s у n t а с t i с compound in which the order of bases runs counter to the order in which the motivating words can be brought together under the rules of syntax of the language. For example, in variable phrases adjectives cannot be modified by preceding adjectives and noun modifiers are not placed before participles or adjectives, yet this kind of asyntactic arrangement is typical of compounds, e.g. red-hot, 148
bluish-black, pale-blue, rain-driven, oil-rich. The asyntactic order is typical of the majority of Modern English compound words; b) s y n t a c -
t i c compounds whose components are placed in the order that resembles the order of words” in free phrases arranged according to the rules of syntax of Modern English. The order of the components in compounds like blue-bell, mad-doctor, blacklist (a+n) reminds one of the order and arrangement of the corresponding words in phrases a blue bell, a mad doctor, a black list (A+N), the order of compounds of the type door-handle, day-time, spring-lock (n+n) resembles the order of words in nominal phrases with attributive function of the first noun (N+N), e.g. spring time, stone steps, peace movement.
2) Compound words whose ICs are joined together with a s p e c i a l l i n k i n g - e l e m e n t — the linking vowels [ou] and occasionally
[i] and the linking consonant [s/z] — which is indicative of composition as in, e.g., speedometer, tragicomic, statesman. Compounds of this type can be both nouns and adjectives, subordinative and additive but are rather few in number since they are considerably restricted by the nature of their components. The additive compound adjectives linked with the help of the vowel [ou] are limited to the names of nationalities and represent a specific group with a bound root for the first component, e.g. Sino-Japanese, Afro-Asian, Anglo-Saxon.
In subordinative adjectives and nouns the productive linking element is also [ou] and compound words of the type are most productive for scientific terms. The main peculiarity of compounds of the type is that their constituents are nonassimilated bound roots borrowed mainly from classical languages, e.g. electro-dynamic, filmography, technophobia, videophone, sociolinguistics, videodisc.
A small group of compound nouns may also be joined with the help of linking consonant [s/z], as in sportsman, landsman, saleswoman, bridesmaid. This small group of words is restricted by the second component which is, as a rule, one of the three bases man-, woman-, people-.
The commonest of them is man-.1
Compounds may be also classified according
§ 33. Types of Bases to the nature of the bases and the interconnection with other ways of word-formation into the so-called compounds proper and’ derivational compounds.
C o m p o u n d s p r o p e r are formed by joining together bases built on the stems or on the word-forms of independently functioning words with or without the help of special linking element such as door-step, age-long, baby-sitter, looking-glass, street-fighting, handiwork, sportsman. Compounds proper constitute the bulk of English compounds in all parts of speech, they include both subordinative and coordinative classes, productive and non-productive patterns.
D e r i v a t i o n a l c o m p o u n d s , e.g. long-legged, three-cornered, a break-down, a pickpocket differ from compounds proper in the nature of bases and their second IC. The two ICs of the compound long-legged — ‘having long legs' — are the suffix -ed meaning ‘having'
1 See ‘Word-Structure’, § 3, p. 92,
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and the base built on a free word-group long legs whose member words lose their grammatical independence, and are reduced to a single component of the word, a derivational base. Any other segmentation of such words, say into long- and legged- is impossible because firstly, adjectives like *legged do not exist in Modern English and secondly, because it would contradict the lexical meaning of these words. The derivational adjectival suffix -ed converts this newly formed base into a word. It can be graphically represented as long legs —> [(long-leg) + -ed] -> long-legged. The suffix -ed becomes the grammatically and semantically dominant component of the word, its head-member. It imparts its part-of-speech meaning and its lexical meaning thus making an adjective that may be semantically interpreted as ‘with (or having) what is denoted by the motivating word-group’. Comparison of the pattern of compounds proper like baby-sitter, pen-holder [n+(v + -er)] with the pattern of derivational compounds like long-legged [(a+n) + -ed] reveals the difference: derivational compounds are formed by a derivational means, a suffix in case of words of the long-legged type, which is applied to a base that each time is formed anew on a free word-group and is not recurrent in any other type of words. It follows that strictly speaking words of this type should be treated as pseudo-compounds or as a special group of derivatives. They are habitually referred to derivational compounds because of the peculiarity of their derivational bases which are felt as built by composition, i.e. by bringing together the stems of the member-words of a phrase which lose their independence in the process. The word itself, e.g. long-legged, is built by the application of the suffix, i.e. by derivation and thus may be described as a suffixal derivative.
Derivational compounds or pseudo-compounds are all subordinative and fall into two groups according to the type of variable phrases that serve as their bases and the derivational means used: a) d e r i v a t i o n a l c o m p o u n d a d j e c t i v e s formed with the help of the highly-productive adjectival suffix -ed applied to bases built on attributive phrases of the A+N, Num + N, N+N type, e.g.
long legs, three corners, doll face. Accordingly the derivational adjectives under discussion are built after the patterns [(a+n) + -ed], e.g. long-legged, flat-chested, broad-minded; [(num + n) + -ed], e.g. two-sided, three-cornered; [(n + n) + -ed], e.g. doll-faced, heart-shaped.
b) d e r i v a t i o n a l c o m p o u n d n o u n s formed mainly by conversion applied to bases built on three types of variable phrases —
verb-adverb phrase, verbal-nominal and attributive phrases.
The commonest type of phrases that serves as derivational bases for this group of derivational compounds is the V + Adv type of word-groups as in, e.g., a breakdown, a break-through, a cast-away, a lay-out. Semantically derivational compound nouns form lexical groups typical of conversion, such as an a c t or i n s t a n c e of the action, e.g. a holdup
— ‘a delay in traffic’ from to hold up — ‘delay, stop by use of force’; a r e s u l t of the action, e.g. a breakdown — ‘a failure in machinery that causes work to stop’ from to break down — ‘become disabled’; an active a g e n t or r e c i p i e n t of the action, e.g. cast-offs — ‘clothes that the owner will not wear again’ from to cast off — ‘throw away as 150
unwanted’; a show-off — ‘a person who shows off from to show off —
‘make a display of one’s abilities in order to impress people’. Derivational compounds of this group are spelt generally solidly or with a hyphen and often retain a level stress. Semantically they are motivated by transparent derivative relations with the motivating base built on the so-called phrasal verb and are typical of the colloquial layer of vocabulary. This type of derivational compound nouns is highly productive due to the productivity of conversion.
The semantic subgroup of derivational compound nouns denoting agents calls for special mention. There is a group of such substantives built on an attributive and verbal-nominal type of phrases. These nouns are semantically only partially motivated and are marked by a heavy emotive charge or lack of motivation and often belong to terms as, e.g., a kill-joy, a wet-blanket — ‘one who kills enjoyment’; a turnkey — ‘keeper of the keys in prison’; a sweet-tooth — ‘a person who likes sweet food’; a red-breast — ‘a bird called the robbin’. The analysis of these nouns easi l y proves that they can only be understood as the result of conversion for their second ICs cannot be understood as their structural or semantic centres, these compounds belong to a grammatical and lexical groups different from those their components do. These compounds are all animate nouns whereas their second ICs belong to inanimate objects. The meaning of the active agent is not found in either of the components but is imparted as a result of conversion applied to the word-group which is thus turned into a derivational base.
These compound nouns are often referred to in linguistic literature as
“bahuvrihi” compounds or exocentric compounds, i.e. words whose semantic head is outside the combination. It seems more correct to refer them to the same group of derivational or pseudo-compounds as the above cited groups.
This small group of derivational nouns is of a restricted productivity, its heavy constraint lies in its idiomaticity and hence its stylistic and emotive colouring.
The linguistic analysis of extensive language