Frequency: Henoch-Schцnlein purpura occurs in 10,000 children per year,
with an estimated incidence of 13.5 cases per 100,000 children.
Sex: Schönlein-Henoch disease - Male-to-female ratio of 1.5:1
Age: Schönlein-Henoch disease: Peak age of onset is 5-15 years.
Etiology: Schönlein-Henoch disease is an immunocomplex disease.
Suspected though not proved inciting agents (antigens) include: group A β-
hemolytic streptococci and other bacteria, viruses, drugs, foods, insect bites.
Pathogenesis: antigen influence → immunoglobulin G, M, A
hyperproduction → antigen-antibody-complement complex in the blood → skin,
kidney, intestine, joints precipitation → lesion → new autoantigens production →
autoimmune damage of small vessels.
CLINICAL
Schönlein-Henoch disease: Up to 50% of patients may report a history of
preceding upper respiratory tract infection or pharyngitis. The triad of abdominal
pain, palpable purpura, and periarticular inflammation, swelling, or both may be
incomplete at presentation
Clinical Findings
1.
The skin rash is often urticarial initially and progresses to a macular-
papular appearance, which transforms into a diagnostic symmetric purpuric rash
distributed on the ankles, buttocks, elbows (Fig. 3, Fig. 4). Purpuric areas of a few
millimeters in diameter may progress to larger hemorrhages. The rash usually
begins on the lower extremities, but the entire body may be involved. New lesions
can continue to appear for 2–4 weeks.
2.
Approximately
two-thirds
of
patients
develop
migratory
polyarthralgia and polyarthritis, primarily of the ankles and knees.
3.
Edema of the hands, feet, scalp and periorbital region may occur.
4.
Abdominal colic – due to hemorrhage and edema primarily of the
small intestine – occurs in about 50% of those affected. Abdominal symptoms
include severe colicky abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and hematochezia or
diarrhea.
5.
25–50% of those affected develop renal involvement, with
hematuria, proteinuria or nephrotic syndrome. Renal symptoms manifest in the
second to third week of illness. Nephritis is a late finding, but if present initially,
it portends a worse renal outcome.
6.
Testicular torsion may occur.
7.
Neurologic symptoms are possible.
Fig. 3. Purpuric rash on the ankles.
Fig. 4. Purpuric rash on the buttocks and legs.
Laboratory findings:
1.
CBC reveals normochromic normocytic anemia of chronic disease;
leukocytosis and thrombocytosis are associated with inflammatory process.
2.
The Westergren sedimentation rate is elevated.
3.
The platelet count, platelet function test, and bleeding time are
usually normal.
4.
Blood coagulation studies are normal.
5.
Urinalysis frequency reveals hematuria, proteinuria, but casts are
uncommon.
6.
The ASO (antistreptolizin-O) titer is frequently elevated and the
throat culture positive for group A beta-hemolytic Streptococci.
7.
Serum Ig A may be elevated.
Histologic Findings: Leukocytoclastic vasculitis observed in Henoch-
Schцnlein purpura, is characterized by focal segmental necrotizing full-thickness
lesions of varying stages in small vessels. Fibrinoid necrosis is present. The
cellular infiltrate is predominantly polymorphonuclear neutrophils. Lymphocytes
and eosinophils may be present. Henoch-Schцnlein purpura reveals a
leukocytoclastic vasculitis with IgA immune deposits.
Medical Care:
Treatment goals are to decrease acute inflammation of blood vessels and to
maintain adequate perfusion of skin and vital organs, while limiting the side
effects of potentially toxic therapies.
Individualize treatment based on the organs affected and the overall
condition of the patient. In general, corticosteroids are administered to control
acute symptoms and laboratory evidence of systemic inflammation. After control
is achieved, attempts may be made to taper over a month.
Treatment:
1.
Corticosteroids therapy may provide symptomatic relief for severe
gastrointestinal or joint manifestations, but doesn’t alter skin or renal
manifestations.
2.
Aspirin is useful for the pain associated with arthritis.
3.
If culture for group A beta-hemolytic Streptococci is positive or if
the ASO titer is elevated, penicillin should be given in full therapeutic doses for
10 days.
4.
Heparin should be administrated to treat Henoch-Schönlein purpura
in case of: large, repeated rush with ulcerating; renal syndrome; abdominal
syndrome.
Heparin Pediatric Dose Initial dose: 50-100 U/kg IV Maintenance
infusion: 15-25 U/kg/h IV; increase dose by 2-4 U/kg/h q6-8h prn using aPTT
results
Background
Henoch-Schönlein purpura (HSP) is an inflammatory disorder characterized by a
generalized vasculitis involving the small vessels of the skin, GI tract, kidneys,
joints, and, rarely, the lungs and CNS. It is the most common vasculitis in children.
The syndrome takes its name from 2 German physicians. In 1837, Johan Schönlein
first described several cases of peliosis rheumatica or purpura associated with
arthritis. Thirty years later, Edouard Henoch described the GI manifestations,
including vomiting, abdominal pain, and melena. Henoch-Schönlein purpura has
also been referred to as rheumatica purpura, leukocytoclastic vasculitis, and
allergic vasculitis. See the images below.
Pathophysiology
The etiology of Henoch-Schönlein purpura is unclear. It is thought to be
multifactorial with genetic, environmental, and antigenic components. More than
75% of patients report antecedent upper-respiratory, pharyngeal, or GI infections.
Multiple bacterial and viral infectious agents have been associated with the
development of Henoch-Schönlein purpura, and cases of Henoch-Schönlein
purpura also have been reported after drug ingestions and vaccinations.
Henoch-Schönlein purpura is thought to be an immunoglobulin A (IgA)–mediated
autoimmune phenomenon. An unknown antigenic stimulant has been postulated to
cause a rise in IgA. The antigen-antibody complexes deposit locally throughout the
body and activate pathways leading to necrotizing vasculitis.
Genetic research may reveal the potential role of cytokines, endothelia and nitric
oxide metabolism in Henoch-Schönlein purpura.
Henoch-Schönlein purpura can involve nearly any organ system. Hallmarks of
Henoch-Schönlein purpura include a characteristic rash, migratory polyarthritis,
renal involvement, and GI involvement. The clinical manifestations of Henoch-
Schönlein purpura are the result of antigen-antibody complexes depositing
throughout the body, which cause migratory arthralgias, abdominal cramping, the
petechial and/or vasculitic rash, and hematuria.
Epidemiology
Frequency
United States
The rate is 14 cases per 100,000 population.
Mortality/Morbidity
Henoch-Schönlein purpura generally resolves without permanent complications.
However, serious GI and renal complications may occur. GI complications include
intussusception (usually ileoileal), bowel infarction, bowel perforation, hydrops of
the gallbladder, pancreatitis, or massive GI bleeding.
Approximately 20% of patients have renal manifestations, and 5% develop end-
stage renal disease (ESRD). Patients with only hematuria do not develop ESRD.
About 15% of patients with hematuria and proteinuria develop ESRD.
Approximately 50% of patients with nephritic or nephrotic syndrome develop
ESRD. The long-term morbidity is predominantly attributed to renal involvement.
Sex
In children, the male-to-female ratio is 2:1. In adults, the male-to-female ratio is
approximately 1:1.
Age
Henoch-Schönlein purpura primarily affects children. Adults are rarely affected.
Approximately 75% of cases occur in children aged 2-11 years. The median age is
5 years. Older age at disease onset is associated with development of chronic renal
disease.
History
The following may be noted in the history of patients with Henoch-Schönlein
purpura (HSP):
The prodrome is associated with the following:
o
Headache
o
Anorexia
o
Fever
After the prodrome, a rash, abdominal pain, peripheral edema, vomiting and/or
arthritis develop.
o
The rash appears in 100% of patients and is the presenting feature in 50%.
o
The distribution usually depends on parts of the body, including the lower trunk,
lower extremities, buttocks and perineum.
o
The rash typically appears in crops with new crops appearing in waves.
o
Eruptions usually last an average of 3 weeks.
o
As many as 85% of patients will have GI symptoms, including abdominal pain,
nausea, and vomiting.
o
The most common symptom is colicky abdominal pain.
o
Joint involvement is present in 75% of reported patients with Henoch-Schönlein
purpura and the presenting sign in approximately 25%.
o
The large joints (eg, knees and ankles) are most commonly involved, with pain and
edema being the only symptoms. The arthritis resolves completely over several
days without permanent articular damage.
o
Renal involvement is present in 30-50% of patients and may persist as long as 6
months after the onset of the rash.
o
Renal involvement manifests in a range from mild hematuria or proteinuria to
oliguria and renal failure.
o
Permanent renal impairment is seen in 20% of patients who have nephrotic or
nephritic syndrome; however, this turns out to be less than 0.1 % of all patients
diagnosed with Henoch-Schönlein purpura.
Physical
Skin
o
Lesions consist of erythematous macules, urticarial papules, pruritic papules, and
plaques. Skin lesions tend to appear in crops in the dependent portions of the body
(eg, lower extremities, lower abdomen, buttocks).
o
Children younger than 2 years also may have involvement of the upper extremity,
head, and trunk.
o
The rash typically appears as red macules and papules, which later become purple
and then rust-colored.
o
Various stages of eruption are usually present simultaneously. The lesions may
blanch initially, but they progress to palpable purpura as they mature.
Abdomen
o
Heme-positive stool is the primary finding on GI examination.
o
Findings on abdominal examination are generally unremarkable.
o
On occasion, the abdomen is tender.
o
Signs of an acute abdomen are rarely present.
Joints
o
The knees, ankles, and (less commonly) wrists are involved.
o
Tenderness and edema are periarticular. Warmth, erythema, and effusions are not
typically associated with Henoch-Schönlein purpura.
Other
o
Case reports describe patients with Henoch-Schönlein purpura presenting with
protein-losing enteropathy without liver or kidney dysfunction.
o
The rash may appear late in the course, simplifying the diagnosis.
Causes
The current understanding of the etiology of Henoch-Schönlein purpura suggests
the involvement of toxins, viruses, idiopathic causes, and drugs. No single etiology
has been clearly identified; however, most cases are preceded by a recent upper
airway infection.
Infectious agents associated with Henoch-Schönlein purpura
o
Streptococcus species (especially group A)
o
Yersinia species
o
Legionella species
o
Parvovirus
o
Adenovirus
o
Mycoplasma species
o
Epstein-Barr virus
o
Varicella
Drugs associated with Henoch-Schönlein purpura
o
Penicillin
o
Ampicillin
o
Erythromycin
o
Quinidine
o
Quinine
Vaccines associated with Henoch-Schönlein purpura
o
Typhoid and paratyphoid A and B
o
Measles
o
Yellow fever
o
Cholera
Differential Diagnoses
Arthritis, Rheumatoid
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
Glomerulonephritis, Acute
Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura
Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Meningitis
Mononucleosis
Orchitis
Pediatrics, Chicken Pox or Varicella
Pediatrics, Child Abuse
Pediatrics, Gastroenteritis
Pediatrics, Gastrointestinal Bleeding
Pediatrics, Hand-Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Pediatrics, Intussusception
Pediatrics, Kawasaki Disease
Pediatrics, Meningitis and Encephalitis
Renal Failure, Acute
Shock, Septic
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Testicular Torsion
Thrombocytopenic Purpura
Tick-Borne Diseases, Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
Laboratory Studies
Electrolyte values in patients with Henoch-Schönlein purpura (HSP) are generally
in the reference range, but excessive vomiting can affect the values.
BUN and creatinine levels may be increased in the presence of renal involvement.
Amylase and lipase levels may be elevated in patients with pancreatitis.
A CBC count usually reveals a leukocytosis with a left shift, possibly eosinophilia,
and a normal or increased platelet count. Hemoglobin and/or hematocrit values
may be normal or decreased secondary to bleeding.
Urinalysis usually shows hematuria, proteinuria, and occasional red cell casts.
Additional laboratory tests that can be helpful in narrowing the differential
diagnosis include the following:
Assessment of antistreptolysin-O (ASO) titer
Monospot test
Antinuclear antibody (ANA) test
Rheumatoid factor (RF) test
Determination of C3/C4 levels
Measurement of the prothrombin time (PT)
Measurement of the activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT)
Blood cultures
Imaging Studies
Imaging studies are necessary only as the clinical picture dictates.
CT scanning may aid in the exclusion of other causes of abdominal pain.
Barium enema study or endoscopy might be needed to evaluate epigastric pain,
hematemesis, and melena.
Ultrasonography may be helpful for evaluating intussusception and to exclude
appendicitis.
A chest radiograph should be obtained after hemoptysis, and a head CT is
necessary if neurologic symptoms or severe headache persist.
Imaging of the scrotum by means of ultrasonography or a technetium radionuclide
scanning may be necessary if scrotal edema is a presenting feature.
Emergency Department Care
ED treatment of Henoch-Schönlein purpura (HSP) is supportive, with frequent
monitoring of vital signs. For minor complaints of arthritis, edema, fever or
malaise, symptomatic treatment is advised, including use of acetaminophen,
elevation of swollen extremities, eating a bland diet, and adequate hydration.
Most patients with self-limited cases can be safely discharged home with close
follow-up by their primary physician. Whether or not to admit the patient to the
hospital depends on the practice of the admitting pediatrician and his or her
preference. Admission to the hospital is recommended for control of abdominal
pain or vomiting, monitoring of renal function, confirming a doubted diagnosis,
and observation and monitoring.
One study examined the prevention and treatment of renal disease in patients with
Henoch-Schönlein purpura.
Meta-analyses of 4 trials revealed no significant
difference in the risk of persistent kidney disease at 6 months and 12 months in
children given prednisone for 14-28 days upon presentation, compared with
placebo or supportive treatment. Also, no significant difference was noted in the
risk of persistent renal disease in children given cyclophosphamide compared with
supportive treatment and with cyclosporin compared with methylprednisolone.
However, data from randomized trials for any intervention used to improve renal
outcome in children with Henoch-Schönlein purpura are sparse.
All unnecessary drugs should be discontinued if the etiology is suspected to be
drug related.
Patients with renal involvement require close attention in regard to their fluid
balance, electrolyte status, and use of antihypertensives (if indicated).
Use of immunosuppressive and cytotoxic drugs is gaining favor based on research
and case studies.
Dapsone has been used to treat associated purpura and arthralgias.
Factor VIII concentrate has been used to relieve abdominal pain when
corticosteroids are contraindicated.
Plasmapheresis is currently under investigation.
Kidney transplantation may be indicated in patients with severe renal disease that
is resistant to medical therapy.
Surgery may be undertaken to treat severe bowel ischemia.
Consultations
If the patient has renal involvement, a nephrologist should be consulted for
assistance in determining if dialysis is indicated.
Because 1 in 20 patients with Henoch-Schönlein purpura develop renal failure,
early consultation is desirable.
Medication Summary
Treatment of Henoch-Schönlein purpura (HSP) is largely supportive. Analgesia
with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or acetaminophen may
reduce joint and soft tissue discomfort. The evidence does not clearly demonstrate
that corticosteroid administration prevents the development of nephritis in patients
with Henoch-Schönlein purpura, although its use in the treatment of intestinal and
neurologic complications is gaining acceptance. If used, prednisone 1-2 mg/kg/d
PO for 7 days is recommended. Antihypertensives may be indicated with renal
involvement; for more information, see the pediatric topic Hypertension.
Other drugs are currently under investigation (see Emergency Department Care).
For more information on long-term medication management, see the pediatric
general medicine topic Henoch-Schönlein Purpura.
Analgesic agents
Class Summary
Pain control is essential for quality patient care. Some analgesics (eg,
acetaminophen, ibuprofen) are also effective for treating fever.
Ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin)
Effective for treating fever or mild-to-moderate pain. Inhibits inflammatory
reactions and pain by decreasing prostaglandin synthesis.
Acetaminophen (Feverall, Tempra, Tylenol)
Inhibits action of endogenous pyrogens on heat-regulating centers; reduces fever
by a direct action on the hypothalamic heat-regulating centers, which, in turn,
increase the dissipation of body heat via sweating and vasodilation. Effective for
treating fever and relieving mild-to-moderate pain.
Glucocorticoids
Class Summary
Short-term use may be considered to decrease inflammation during neurologic or
intestinal complications.
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