Content Introduction Chapter-i 3 Analytical Tools for Grammatical Meaning

Chapter –II Types of grammatical forms
2.1 Synthetic methods of expressing grammatical meanings
Synthetic methods of expressing grammatical meanings include affixation, exchange, stress, reduplication, word structure, and suppletivism.
Affixes are expressions of grammatical meanings using affixes (suffixes, prefixes, endings, etc.). Due to the use of different affixes in world languages. The bi affix method distinguishes the following types:
a) suffixes - express grammatical meanings with suffixes. This is one of the most common ways of expressing grammatical meanings in Indo-European and Semitic languages. It’s time to read again ukr - read again (imperfect look), sleep - bainki (meaning of kindness), beautiful - more beautiful (highest level) Russian knock - knock (perfect look), cheerful - more interesting (highest degree), sololia - straw (unit meaning) Hem Arbeit “work» - Arbeiter «worker» - Arbeiterin «worker», crank «sick» - Krankheit «disease»; English to write «to write» - to write «who writes» ooba «; English write» to write «- write» how to write «;
b) prefixing - the expression of grammatical meanings using prefixes. This is the main way of expressing the lexical and grammatical meanings of the verbs in the Indo-European language category: ukr - to bring in, to bring in, to priesthood, to present, to copy; Russian read - read, write - write; it gehen «to go» - vergehen «to pass», entgehen «to send»; bolg cherven «red» - darker «redder»; «chervony» - black «red»;
c) confusion-the expression of grammatical meanings through a combination of two affixes - prefix and suffix, which, although two morphemes, act together. In German, with the help of a confession, passive suffixes appear: machen «work» - gemacht «done», schreiben «write» - geschrieben «written», fahren «go» - gefahren «came» fahren «hati». - gefahren «you came»;
d) infection - expressed using grammatical meanings. INFIX, that is. morphemes added to the middle of the root. Lat vici «won» - vinco «I swallow», fidi «prick» - findo «kolyu», tagalogcha sulat «pi ismo» - sumulat «write» galsk. sulat «letter» - sumulat «writing»;
d) transcription - the expression of grammatical meanings using transfixes, ie. affixes, that is, self-destructive, breaking the root consisting only of consonants, and acting as a «layer» of x vowels between consonants, defining the word form and grammatically formalizing it. Transcription is specific to Semitic languages. Dov-nyoevre spread rot «steal» -. Ganaba «stolen», goneb «stolen something; thief»,. Ganub «Stolen E»; Arabic, kataba «written», kutaba «written»,. Secretary «write». Book «writing», uktub «writing» writing «, katibu» toi, scho writing «, book» writing «, uktub» writing;
e) null-affixation, viz. the absence of an affix in one form of paradigm in the presence of affixes in another form. Ukr wall - walls, work - works; Russian white - white, water - water, farmer - farmers. In their Turkic languages, the zero affix is ​​an indication of the nominative case of singular nouns: Kazakh, “bola” balli ,. To the child «for the child», in the ballad «for the child», to the child «children», to the child «to the child», to the child «to the child», to the child «to the child», to the child «to the child».
When talking about affixation, it is necessary to distinguish between synthesis and agglutination. In affixes, affixes are plural (hollow wall, ox, sleeve, where -a ending nominative singular means feminine, general differences point singular means masculine and nominative plural), non-standard (walls, songs, names, ending here and, -i, - a represents the same meaning of the nominative plural), affixless bases, as a rule, are not used (door and, handle-and, handle-and, red-th), as if there is an alloy stems and affix ( Cossack Russian transition with Cossack sk (s) - part of the journey, the phonetic structure of the root of kal m can change (sleep - sleep /, friend - friends).
During the period of agglutination, which is typical of the Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, affixes are unambiguous (Kazakh, -i always means the future tense, -lar - many others), standard, core and mechanical to the core glued in such a way. is used without an affix (am «horse», «ball», «child», «happiness», «head») and never changes the phonetic window, the phonetic warehouse.
Alternation (internal inflection) is a means of expressing grammatical meanings specific to Indo-European languages. Thus, in particular, in Ukrainian and Russian the grammatical meaning of the type is represented alternately (collect - collect, you can write - in the abscess), in English and German - time and number (song «sing»). , «I sing» - «I sang», «I drink» - «I drink», «I drink» - I drank «, teeth» teeth «- teeth» teeth «;» mother «mutters -» mother «, Bruder» brother «- Br family. For example: Russian ask - ask, ukr walk - walk; mute Hand» ask «- H ask, ukr walk - hoju; nim. Hand» hand «- Hände» hands «, Gast» guest «- Gäste» guests «, singen» sleep «- gesungen» sleep ...
Stress is a phonetic tool that expresses grammatical meaning. It can perform such a function only when it is mobile and not fixed. Thus, it is available in Ukrainian, Russian, Belarusian, Bulgarian and other languages. In these languages, changing the emphasis in the word paradigm is a way to differentiate these word forms. For example: hands (gender only) - hands (marks are called many), cut, fill, remove (unprecedented appearance) - cut, fill, remove ( perfect view). accents such as grammatical way can be combined with affixes: (hands - hands, forest - forests) and interchangeable (scream - scream, Russian knock - knock) «
Reduplication is the complete or partial repetition of a stem, stem, or whole word without changing or partially altering its sound content. It is used in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, as well as in Indonesian, Paleo-African, and Austronesian. So, for example, in Indonesian orang «man» - orange «man», sedulur «friend» - sedulur sedulur «dru so», kuda «horse» - kuda-kuda «horses» Chinese zhen «man» - zhen. -zhen -kuda «ot»; In Chinese zhen «lyudina» - zhen-zhen «people», sin «star» - sin-sin «stars» Grammatically, clearly expressed in Ukrainian and Russian, repetitions appear from time to time to express specific shades of the verb (duration of action): you sh you say. say, work-work, you-talk, work-work.
In Turkish, hesitation serves as a means of expressing the highest level of adjectives. sweater Red «red» - Red-red «most red». Jacques sy «good» - jaxes-jaxes «best» We have a similar mo in the Slavic languages, although this phenomenon is interpreted here as the intensification of characters. Pore ​​ukr pure-clean, light-light, large-large (with prefix) Russian white-white, blue-blue thin); grown white-white, blue-blue skinny.
In some languages ​​(mainly Turkic), incomplete repetitions are used to express collegiality (the first consonant is replaced by b, p, or m). For example: Kazakh «camel» - tuyo-muyo «camels and other livestock», kulak «rich, kulak» - kulak-Mulaku «fist» The same phenomenon is observed in Ukrainian and Russian, but here the repetitions play a role. means of expressing grammatical meanings: tar i-bars, types-moors, figli-migli, egg-mogul, shurum-burum. Also keep in mind that in modern languages ​​reduplication is often used in onomatopoeic words: ukr and Russian ku-ku, oink-oink, tuk-tuk, clap-chap; Persian chorus «grunt», tag-tag «knock»; Tamil kubu-kubu «gurgle», sala-sala «shpak, clap;
Slovoskladennya is a combination of the root morpheme with the root, resulting in a new word. Slovozkladdennya - this is the only way to convey the derivative grammatical meaning. It is similar to affixation in that morphemes are joined here and there, but only core morphemes are joined when a word is joined.
Full roots and cut roots, stems and whole words can be combined. There are two compilation trends in world languages: 1) mechanical (agglutination) work, when the meaning of a complex word is equal to the sum of meanings derived from its components (for example, Ukrainian wall newspaper, Russian professional), it is Kopfschmerz « headache «, Augenapfel» eyeball «) and 2) organic (fusional), when the integral value is not equal to the sum of the glass values ​​of the new parts (English typewriter = not» font «« writer «, but «typewriter», killjoy = «kill» not «joy» but «man who spoils everyone’s mood», French cachnez = «secret» «« on top, like a dog in all moods. «, French cachnez =« hove «+ not «nis» but «scarf, muffler»). not all languages ​​are structured the same. It differs from all other languages ​​by the richness of the German language: Taschenworterbuch «pocket dictionary», Kaufmann «merchant», Handschuh «glove», Wand duhr «wall clock», Stundenplan «lesson schedule», Vergilad lessons «, Vergißmeinnicht» forget. «I'm not.» With the historical development of language, one of the elements of a complex word can lose its lexical meaning, become a suffix or prefix. Hence, the German suffix-heit (Schonheit “beauty”, Wahrhe eit “truth”, etc.) first means a horse, schaft (Wissenschaft “science”, Gesellschaft “society”), which means “kindness, way”) The suffix meant «property.» , state, quality «English supplements-ful (useful» useful «, beautiful» good «),» less (helpless «helpless», infinite «infinite»), - capable (suitable «suitable», companion «sociable , sociable «, valuable» precious «) and now have the words» full «, less» less «, capable» capable «,» one «, so this additional plural does not appear in the form (Kievans, bourgeois, peasants). In German. The prefix ein- (einfahren «to enter», einlegen «capital», einkaufen «to buy», einschlafen «to sleep», «eindecken» to cover in « ) and the number ein «alone) is available. ti «, einkaufen» kupuvati «, einschlafen» zinati «, eindecken» vkrivati ​​») and ein» a «number.
Suppletivism is the formation of grammatical forms of the same word from different stems or from different stems. For example: brothers (imperfect form) - take (perfect form), speak (imperfect form) - say (e perfect form) Russian planted (imperfect form) - sit (perfect form), put (imperfect form) - put (perfect form), man (singular) - people (plural) mute Der Mensch «man» - die Leute and Leute «people».
Suppletivism is inherent in the paradigm of personal pronouns in Indo-European languages ​​as the only way to express grammatical meanings: in Ukrainian I am me, she is him, and we; it ich - mich, sie - ihr, wir - uns, inglizcha / - me, she - her, we - us; fr je - t-te.
In Indo-European languages, the method of supletivism is also used to create levels of comparison of adjectives with the meaning of «good» and «bad»: good Ukrainian is better, Russian is better, gut - - besser, English is better - better, fr , bon - meilleutter, fr, bon - meilleur.
Methods of expressing grammatical meanings
2. Affixation
3. Replacement
4. Suppletivism
5. Repetition (repetition)
6. Stress
7. Service words
8. Word order
9. Intonation
1. The concept of grammatical path
A grammatical path is a material expression of a grammatical meaning.
For example, the opposite of units. and others. numbers in word forms are materially represented by phot - feet (inner turn) [u] - variable vowels. The term grammatical means is used in almost the same way. Often the names of the methods and tools are exactly the same, see: method - internal rotation and means of expressing GZ - internal rotation. Sometimes the names of methods and tools differ:
way - affixation,
means - affix (prefix, suffix, flexion ...).
The main methods of expressing grammatical meanings:
affixation,
exchange,
suppletivism,
repetition (repetition),
stress,
service words,
word order,
intonation
Grammatical methods are divided into the following, depending on whether the lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed in a significant word or whether other units are used to express the GZ.
Synthetic (significant word LZ and GZ) and
Analytical (GZ expressed outside the word). Affixation, internal inflection, repetition, suppletivism, and stress are synthetic methods, while task words, word order, and intonation are analytical.
2. Affixation
Affixation is the expression of GZ using affixes.
However, affixes are said to be a means of expressing GZ:
turns: talk, talk, you ...
additions: do-t - do-l ...
prefixes: do - s-do ...
Only non-phonetic (= historical, traditional) exchanges are used as a grammatical tool, i. independent of synchronous phonetic laws. For example, in Russian, assimilation changes of sounds (boat [lot-ka] - lod-ok [lod-'k]), surprising consonants at the end of a word, and exchange of vowels due to shortening (water [vLda] - water) [sound] ).
The change in root sounds that represent GZ is called internal flexion.
In flexion-type languages, in addition to external flexion, internal flexion is also widely used:
external turn: dog-O`dog «- it-s` dogs «;
internal flexion: foot `foot» - foot `feet».
NB! [O] - [s] are not alternatives, they have different outcomes (flexions) with different GZ (singular - plural).
In various grammatical traditions, the term internal inflection or exchange is often used to refer to the change of core sounds. But keep in mind that the term exchange is broader: exchanges occur not only in the root, but also in affixal morphemes:
bench - bench - bench ...
Classical internal flexion is common in Germanic languages ​​and is defined in its material.
Then. and English. lang. An internal deflection is used to represent the GZ number:
German: Bruder `brother» - Bruder `brothers»;
English: tooth `tooth» - teeth `tooth»; man `male» - men `men» ...
Using internal inflection, time, mood, and voice are expressed in GZ verb forms:
German: helfen `help» - hilft `helps» - half `helped» - halfe `helps» - geholfen - pr. transition hall;
English: start - started - started; write - wrote - wrote ...
In Russian. lang. The type contrast using exchanges is mainly expressed at the root:
escape - escape, resort - run
send - send, call - noun.
Internal flexion can express GZ independently and can be accompanied by other grammatical means. Wednesday German:
Buch book» - Bucher `books»,
helfen help» - hilft `help»,
helfen help - jump. geholfen.
Wednesday Also types of Russian couples:
lock - lock; to die is to die;
walking - walking around; throw - throw ...
How to interpret and transcribe the internal inflection of Semitic languages:
kitob book» - kutub `books»
4. Suppletivism
grammatically significant affixation
Suppletivism (Lat. Suppleo, supplztum fill, fill) - the formation of grammatical forms of the word from different stems or stems.
Supplementary forms (suffixes) are relatively rare and are not common to all languages. In Indo-European languages, they play a role in shaping the forms of personal pronouns:
Russian: I - I, I; you - you, you; u - him, him, him ...
German: ich - mich,
English: I - I,
fr .: je - moi,
lat .: ego - men.
Suppletivism is used to form comparative and (to a lesser extent) superior levels of comparison of adjectives and adverbs:
In Indo-European languages, suppletivism is inherent in the conjugation of verbs meaning «to be» and «to go»:
Russian: to be - this - the essence,
fr .: etre - est - sont - foot (simple past),
German: sein - bin - ist - sind (present) - war (past tense),
Russian: go - walk, walk.
It is also used to create forms of the number of horses:
man - people, child - children,
and for opposite verbs in the round pair:
speak - say, hold - hold ...
Sometimes a serious problem is the separation of suppletivism from internal inflection. In both cases, the grammatical meaning is expressed by a change in the phonemic structure of the stem. There are many intermediate cases that require the determination of the root minimum, which does not change [Girutsky, p. 197]. Wednesday rus we-th - my-th, eng. do - done. Is it enough to fit only one sound to take into account that we are dealing with inner flexion, not Suppletivism?
5. Repetition (repetition)
Repetition or reduplication (> lat. Reduplicatio `addition ') is a complete or partial addition of a root, stem or whole word to GZ, sometimes with a partial change in sound composition.
Reduplication is common in many languages ​​and represents a variety of grammatical meanings.
Plurality of names:
Malay (Austronesian family): «rare people» - «rare people»;
khausa (Chad branch of the Semitic-Hamit family): bhai `aka-uka» - bhai-bhai `aka-uka».
The repetition may not be complete: the first or last joint of the root is hesitant.
yasho (language of North American Indians): gusu `bison» - ggusu `bison»;
Polynesian languages: tele `tree '- tetele` trees';
Tagalog (Austronesian family): maitai `man» - maitatai `men».
Collectivism
Turkic languages: zhylky `horses' - zhylky-mylky` horses and other cattle «(community` ot «)
Intensity and superiority of features
Chinese: hao `good` - hao-hao-dy` very good «;
Kazakh: red `red`- red-red` most red`
Maori (Polynesian languages) - the meaning of the weakened sign: wera `hot '- wera-wera` hot'.
In Russian. lang. thus the intensity of the feature or the duration and intensity of the movement is expressed:
sof-sof, sof-sof;
barely, a little.
Methods of action of the verb
Russian - duration and frequency: walked, walked, spoke, spoke (and did nothing);
Somali (Kushit branch of the Semitic-Hamit family): fen `gnaw» - fen-fen` to gnaw on all sides «.
Polynesian languages: to be divided - to be divided more often.
Replication is the most common in Austronesian languages, where it is used for both flexion and word formation.
Indonesia: api `fire» - api-api `compatible»;
lara `sick» - lelara `ill» [Reform, p. 287-289; Kodukhov, 248].
6. Stress
Only variable stress can be used to express grammatical meanings:
monotonic moving stress;
polytonic (musical) stress.
Moving stress is used, for example,
When changing GZ case and number:
place - place; walls - walls;
windows - windows; home - home; city ​​- city;
to distinguish a pair of types of verbs:
infusion - filling; pour out - pour out; run - run ...
In English. language, verb, and noun may differ only in place of stress:
progress `to progress» - progress `progress»;
import `import» - import `import»;
extraction `extract» - extract `extract».
Stress relocation often comes with other methods:
to meet - to meet;
table - tables ...
Politonic stress:
Serbian: trunks (with decreasing stress) `things» (r.p. unit `thing from the star») - trunks (with rising stress) `things» (local n. Unit);
Shilluk (Nilotic, Nilo-Sahara; Eastern Arika): jit high-pitched `ear 'and low-tone` ears';
tsvana (Bantu group’s African language): low-pitched kemoto «I'm a man» - kemoto high-pitched «he’s a man»
7. Service words
Service words are words that are not lexically independent and serve to express different semantic and syntactic relationships between words, sentences, and parts of speech, as well as different forms of subjective modality. Service words are contrasted with important words as grammatical units of lexicons that perform a nominative function. Formal words, unlike important words, do not perform a nominative function
or express grammatical meanings independently;
or they are accompanied by an inflectional affix.
Types of service words According to the generality of the functions, service words are divided into several categories:
prepositions / postpositions,
auxiliary verbs,
level words,
empty words.⁴