Scientific Co., USA)
Horizon 1020, Model H1 (BRL, USA)
55
PROTEAN Vertical electrophoresis System (Bio-
Rad, USA)
Incubators
:
Shake'n'Stack (Hybaid, UK)
Oven EN400 (Nuve, Turkey)
Magnetic Stirrer
:
Chiltern Hotplate Magnetic Stirrer, HS31 (UK)
Ovens
:
Microwave Oven (Vestel, Turkey)
Power Supplies
:
Power Pac Model 3000 (Bio-Rad, USA)
PSU 400/200 (Scie-Plus, UK)
Refrigerator
:
+4°C (Arçelik, Turkey)
Spectrophotometers
:
NanoDrop ND-1000 (NanoDrop, USA)
CE 5502 Scanning Double Beam 5000 Series
(CECIL Elegant Technology, UK)
Thermal Cyclers
:
Icycler (Bio-Rad, USA)
Mycycler (Bio-Rad, USA)
Light-Cycler 1.5 (Roche, Germany)
Vortex
:
Nuvemix (Nuve, Turkey)
Water Purification System
:
WA-TECH Ultra Pure water Purification System
(WA-TECH, Germany)
56
4.1. Molecular Basis of Rett Syndrome (RTT)
4.1.1. DNA Extraction from Peripheral Blood
Genomic DNA was extracted from peripheral blood by using a modified version of
salting-out method described by Miller et al. (1988). Peripheral blood samples were
collected from individuals into vacutainer tubes containing K
3
EDTA. Thirty ml ice-cold
red blood cell (RBC) lysis buffer is added to 10 ml blood sample and mixed thoroughly.
The samples are then left at +4 ˚C for 15 minutes (min) to allow lysis of erythrocyte
membranes. Leukocyte nuclei were collected after centrifugation of lysed solution at 5000
revolution per minute (rpm), +4 ˚C for 10 min. The supernatant was discarded and the
nuclei were resuspended in 10 ml RBC lysis buffer by vortexing. Resuspension was
centrifuged again at 5000 rpm, +4 ˚C for 10 min. After discarding the supernatant, the
nuclear pellet was resuspended in three ml nuclei lysis buffer by vortexing. Thirty µl of
Proteinase K and 40µl of 10 per cent SDS were added and the mixture was incubated at 37
˚C overnight or at 56 ˚C for three hours. Afterwards ten ml of 2.5 M NaCl were added to
mixture and centrifuged at 5000 rpm at room temperature for 20 min. The supernatant was
transferred into a new 50 ml falcon tube. The DNA was precipitated with addition of two
volumes of absolute ethanol. The DNA was transferred in to a 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube
containing 200-500 µl of Tris-EDTA (TE) buffer, and left overnight at room temperature
to dissolve completely.
4.1.2. Quantitative Analysis of the Extracted DNA
The concentration of the isolated DNA was calculated measuring the optical density
at 260 nm. The formula below was used, which is based on the fact that 50 µg of double
stranded DNA has an absorbance of 1.0 at 260 nm.
57
4.1.3. Mutation Analysis of MECP2 Gene
The RTT patients were screened for mutations within the MECP2 gene using PCR-
RFLP, SSCP and subsequent DNA sequencing.
4.1.3.1. Restriction Endonuclease Analysis. The most common mutations p.R106W,
p.T158M, p.R168X, p.R255X, p.R270X, and p.R306C were screened in each patient using
PCR-RFLP as a preliminary step. The region containing the mutation site was amplified
using the primers given in Table 1. PCR reaction was performed in a total volume of 25 µl
containing approximately 100 ng DNA, 2.5 µl of 10X polymerase buffer, 2.0 mmol/l
MgCl
2
, 0.2 mmol/L dNTPs, 0.4 µmol/l of each primer and 1 U of Taq polymerase
(Fermentas). The PCR program on Icycler
TM
(BioRad) thermal cycler was as follows: an
initial denaturation step at 94 ºC for 4 min, followed by 33 cycles of 45 sec at 94 ºC, 30 sec
at annealing temperature, 45 sec at 72 ºC, and a final extension step of 8 min at 72 ºC. Five
µl from the PCR product was run on two per cent agarose gel to check for any nonspecific
bands. A total of ten µl of the PCR product was digested with 3U of the appropriate
restriction enzyme (Fermentas) and 2 µl of its 10X reaction buffer in a 20 µl reaction
volume (Table 4.1). The mixture was incubated at 37 ºC for 4 hours. The digested products
were electrophoresed on three per cent agarose gel at 100 V for 30 min. The gel and
running buffers were 0.5X TBE. The fragments were visualized by ethidium bromide
under UV light. The genotyping was performed according to restriction fragment profiles
(Table 4.1).
4.1.3.2. Single Strand Conformation Polymorphism. Patients were further screened for the
presence of point mutations by Single Strand Conformation Polymorphism (SSCP)
analysis. The four coding exons and the flanking intronic regions were amplified in ten
overlapping fragments by use of primers listed in Table 1.1.1. The primers designed by
Bienvenu et al. (2000) were used, except for the exon 1. The sequences of the exon 1
primers were 5'-ggacaggaaatctcgccaat-3' (forward) and 5'-cacggcggtcccactc-3' (reverse).
PCR reactions were carried out in a total volume of 50 µl containing approximately 200 ng
DNA, 5 µl of 10X polymerase buffer, 2.0 mmol/l MgCl
2
, 0.2 mmol/L dNTPs, 0.4 µmol/l
of each primer and 2 U of Taq polymerase (Fermentas). The PCR program on Icycler
TM
(BioRad) thermal cycler was as follows: an initial denaturation step at 94 ºC for 4 min,
58
followed by 33 cycles of 45 sec at 94 ºC, 30 sec at annealing temperature, 45 sec at 72 ºC,
and a final extension step of 8 min at 72 ºC. Five µl from the PCR product was run on a
two per cent agarose gel to check for any nonspecific bands.
Table 4.1. The list of the MECP2 gene mutations analyzed by PCR-RFLP method.
Exon
Mutation
Restriction
Enzyme
Primers
PCR
product
RFLP Results
Exon 3
p.R106W
(c.316 C>T)
Nla
lll
Rett 2.1F
Rett 2.2R
277 bp
Wt: 124 + 153 bp
Mt: 34 + 90 + 153 bp
Exon 4
p.T158M
(c.473 C>T)
Nla
lll
Rett 3AF
Rett 3AR
182 bp
Wt: 182 bp
Mt: 120 + 62 bp
Exon 4
p.R168X
(c.502 C>T)
Hph
l
Rett 3AF
Rett 3AR
182 bp
Wt: 182 bp
Mt: 150 + 32 bp
Exon 4
p.R255X
(c.763 C>T)
Hha
l
Rett 3CF
Rett 3MR
120 bp
Wt: 90 + 30 bp
Mt: 120 bp
Exon 4
p.R270X
(c.808 C>T)
Nla
lV
Rett 3CF
Rett 3CR
410 bp
Wt: 140+ 270 bp
Mt: 410 bp
Exon 4
p.R306C
(c.916 C>T)
Hha
l
Rett 3CF
Rett 3CR
410 bp
Wt: 250 + 160 bp
Mt: 410 bp
4.1.3.3. Preparation of SSCP Gels. The amplification products were run on eight per cent
acrylamide gels with or without four per cent glycerol. The glass plates of 180 mm x 200
mm were cleaned with alcohol to remove any dust and oily fingerprints. Then, 0.7 mm
thick spacers were placed on the two edges of the glass plates and the plates were tightened
with clamps. The eight per cent acrylamide solution was prepared as follows: 350 µl of
ammonium per sulfate (10 per cent) and 35 µl of TEMED were added in 9.3 ml of 30 per
cent stock acrylamide solution (29:1 acrylamide to N, N’-methlene-bis-acrylamide). The
mixture volume was adjusted to 35 ml with dH
2
0 and poured between two plates. A 20-
well comb was inserted between the two plates and the gel was allowed to polymerize for
at least one hour.
59
4.1.3.4. SSCP Electrophoresis. An aliquot of 15 µl of the PCR product was mixed with 15
µl of denaturing loading dye (95 per cent form amid, 0.05 per cent bromophenol blue, 0.05
per cent xylene cyanol). Just before loading, they were denatured at 94°C for five min, and
chilled on ice for five min. Thirteen µl of the denatured sample was loaded on the gel.
Electrophoresis of the samples was carried out in 0.6 X TBE buffer at 150-250 V for 16
hours.
4.1.3.5. Silver-Staining. The alleles, separated on gels, were visualized by silver-staining.
The gel was incubated with buffer A for five min to fix the DNA fragment. Buffer A was
replaced with buffer B, which is a silver nitrate solution, and the gel was left for 10-15
min. After a short wash with dH
2
O, the gel was immersed in freshly prepared buffer C
until the bands appeared (approximately 10 min). After color development, Buffer D is
used to terminate the color reaction for five min. The gel was then transferred to a
transparent folder, and was sealed on all four sides for preservation.
4.1.4. DNA Sequence Analysis
When a single strand conformation polymorphism was observed, genomic DNA was
amplified using the same primer pairs used for SSCP and both forward and reverse strands
were sequenced. Patient and control PCR products were purified using Qiagen PCR
purification kit (Qiagen) and sequenced with automated sequencer ABI 3700 PRISM
(Applied Biosystems) in Iontek (Istanbul, Turkey). The resulting sequences were aligned
with the CLUSTAL W program.
4.1.5. Quantitative Real Time PCR
The real time PCR was performed in a total volume of 20 µl, containing 10 µl 2X
SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (TaKaRa, Japan), 5 pmol of each primer per reaction, 4 µl
of the genomic DNA (5 ng/µl) and distilled water. The PCR protocol on Light Cycler (LC)
(Roche Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany) was as follows: an initial denaturation step
(95°C for 2 min) followed by amplification and quantification steps repeated for 30 cycles
(95°C for 5 sec, 58°C for 10 sec, 72°C for 20 sec, with a single fluorescence measurement
60
at the end of the elongation step at 72°C), a melting curve program (65–98°C with a
heating rate of 0.2°C per second and a continuous fluorescence measurement) and
terminated by cooling to 40°C. Each sample was amplified with the MECP2 and reference
gene primer pairs. The coding exons of the MECP2 was amplified using the following
primers designed by Bienvenu et al. (2000); Rett_exon2F: tttctttgttttaggctcca;
Rett_exon2R: ggccaaaccaggacatatac; Rett_exon3F: gtgatacttacatacttgtt; Rett_exon3R:
ggctcagcagagtggtgggc;
Rett_exon4F:
tgtgtctttctgtttgtccc;
and
Rett_exon4R:
gatttgggcttcttaggtgg. The reference NDRG1 gene was amplified using NDRG1_exon7F:
aggctcccgtcactctg and NDRG1_exon7R: gtcttccttcatcttaaaatg primers. Within each PCR
batch three aliquots of wild type control DNA in decreasing concentrations (20, 10, and 5
ng) from a healthy female were included to construct a standard curve. Melting point
analysis was conducted on all PCR products to check for any nonspecific amplicons. Using
the Fit Points Method, the DNA was quantified relative to the standard curve for each
exon. Subsequently, the ratios between target (MECP2) and reference (NDRG1) exon were
calculated for each individual. The ratio was 1.0 for normal individuals, a ratio of 0.5 was
accepted as a heterozygous deletion, and 1.5 as a heterozygous duplication.
4.1.6. Quantitative Fluorescent Multiplex PCR Assay
Quantitative fluorescent multiplex PCR (QF-PCR) assay was used to detect the
MeCP2 exon 3 rearrangments. Multiplex QF-PCR assay was set up to amplify exon 3 of
MeCP2 gene and exon 2 of Prion Protein (PRNP) gene simultaneously. The following
primers were used: 6-FAM labeled MeCP2-3F: gagcccgtgcagccatcagc, MeCp2-3R:
cgtgtccagccttcaggcag, 6-FAM labeled PRNP-2F: actgcgtcaatatcacaatc, and PRNP-2R:
tccccactatcaggaagatga (Bienvenu et al., 2000). Primers were at first tested in equimolar
amounts and their concentrations were then changed to obtain equal fluorescent peak area
for both MeCP2 and PRNP gene. PCR was performed in a total volume of 20 µl
containing 30 ng genomic DNA, 10 µl 2X SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (TaKaRa,
Japan), 5 pmol (for MeCP2) and 7.5 pmol (for PRNP) of each primer. The PCR protocol
on Light Cycler (LC) (Roche Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany) was as follows: an initial
denaturation step (95°C for 2 min) followed by amplification steps repeated for 25 cycles
of 95°C for 5 sec, 58°C for 10 sec, 72°C for 20 sec and a melting curve program (65–98°C
with a heating rate of 0.2°C per second). Melting point analysis and agarose gel
61
electrophoresis were performed to check for any nonspecific amplicons. Fragments were
then electrophoresed on ABI prism 3100 Genetic analyzer and areas under the curve were
calculated by GeneMapper software package (Applied Biosystem, Foster City, CA) in
Burç laboratory, Istanbul.
4.1.7. X Chromosome Inactivation
X Chromosome Inactivation (XCI) was assessed by the method described by Allen et
al
. (1992) and Beever et al. (2003). Initially, two µg genomic DNA of the each patient and
mother was digested with 10U of HhaI restriction enzyme (MBI Fermentas) in a volume of
20 µl. The mixture was incubated at 37 ºC for overnight.
The HhaI digested and undigested genomic DNAs from the patients were amplified
by primers flanking the CAG repeat region in the Androgen Receptor (AR) or ZNF261
genes (Table 3.2). PCR reaction was performed in a total volume of 25 µl containing
approximately 100 ng DNA, 2.5 µl of 10X polymerase buffer, 1.0 mM MgCl
2
, 10 per cent
dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), 200 µM dNTPs, 0.4 µlM of each primer, and 1 U of Taq
polymerase (Fermentas). The following PCR program was used: 94ºC for 4 min, followed
by 35 cycles of 45 sec at 94 ºC, 30 sec at annealing temperature (65ºC for AR-F/R, 58ºC
for ZNF261-F/R), 1 min at 72ºC, and a final extension step of 8 min at 72ºC.
4.1.7.1. Preparation of Denaturing Polyacrlamide Gels. The PCR products were analyzed
on eight per cent denaturing acrylamide gel. The gel was cast in a 40 cm long sequencing
apparatus that was assembled using 0.35 mm spacers. Four hundred µl of APS (10 per
cent) and 40 µl of TEMED were added in 40 ml of denaturing stock acrylamide solution
and poured between the glass plates. A 24-well shark’s tooth comb was inserted in an
inverted orientation and the gel was allowed to polymerize for at least one hour.
4.1.7.2. Electrophoresis of PCR Products on Denaturing Polyacrlamide Gels. The gel was
initially pre-run with hot 1X TBE buffer at constant power of 40 Watts for 15-20 min to
allow the temperature to rise to 45 ºC. Then, ten µl of the PCR product was mixed with ten
µl of denaturing loading dye, denatured at 94°C for five min, and chilled on ice for five
min. After the comb was re-oriented, three µl of the denatured sample was loaded. The
62
gels were run at 30W constant power for three hours, then silver-stained and sealed for
documentation.
4.1.8. Clinical Severity Score Analysis
4.1.8.1. Clinical Severity Score. Patients were evaluated by a scoring system with respect
to: hand function, eye contact and gait function. The scoring was performed as follow:
Hand function: (1) can hold a glass, can use a spoon or fork; (2) can sometimes grasp an
object; (3) does never use her hands purposefully. Eye contact: (1) intense, use eye
pointing; (2) direct eye contact possible to obtain; (3) eye contact very difficult to obtain.
Gait function: (1) walks independently; (2) has lost gait function; (3) has never walked
(Cheadle et al., 2000).
4.1.8.2. Huppke Scoring. Patients were scored with respect to the following criteria:
Normal prenatal and perinatal period (1); Normal psychomotor development during the
first 6 months (1); Normal head circumference at birth (1); Deceleration of head growth
(1); Never good hand skills (1); Loss of hand skills (2); Stereotypic hand movements (1);
Communication dysfunction and social withdraw (1); Never acquired language (1); Loss of
acquired language (2); Severe psychomotor retardation (1); Impaired or absent locomotion
(1) (Huppke et al., 2003).
4.1.8.3. Statistical Analyses. The non-parametric Wilcoxon Mann–Whitney test with a
significance level of 95 per cent was used for comparing total severity score values of
samples with respect to the presence, type and location of the mutation in the MECP2
gene, and the XCI status. Severity score for specific clinical features of patients were
compared by Fisher exact test. All statistical analyses were performed by using SPSS v
15.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
4.1.9. Multiplexed ARMS-PCR Approach for the Detection of Common MECP2
Mutations
4.1.9.1. Primer Design. The multiplex amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) -
PCR procedure was established to identify seven of the most common MECP2 gene
63
mutations. Primers were designed according to MECP2 sequence (GenBank accession
NT_004992) using web-based software Primer 3.0. The specificity of the primers were
confirmed using the ‘BLAST’’ program at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/blast. The primer
nucleotide sequences are given in Table 1. To increase the specificity of the reaction for
p.R168X and p.T158M mutations a mismatch is introduced at the 3′ end of the
corresponding allele-specific primers. Each primer is designed to amplify fragments of
different sizes to resolve the products easily on agarose gel electrophoresis (Figure 4.1).
Panel 1 can screen for four of the mutations and the corresponding wild type alleles
(p.R133C, p.R168X, p.R255X and p.R294X) whereas Panel 2 detects mutant/wild type
alleles for p.T158M, p.R270X and p.R306C mutations.
Figure 4.1. Schematic representation of primer positions on MECP2 gene nucleotide
sequence.
64
4.1.9.2. PCR conditions. PCR was performed in a total volume of 25µl containing
approximately 60 ng genomic DNA, 2.5 µl of 10X buffer, 2.5 mM MgCl
2
, 0.2 mM dNTPs,
and 1.5U of Taq polymerase (MBI Fermentas, Hanover, MD). The concentrations of
primers used are given in Table 4.2. The PCR program on the thermal cycler (icycler
TM
,
BioRad) was as follows: an initial denaturation step at 94 ºC for 5 min, a 10 cycles of
touchdown PCR consists of 30 sec at 94 ºC, 45 sec at 63 ºC with 0.4 ºC decrement in each
cycle and 1 min at 72 ºC followed by 35 cycles of 25 sec at 94 ºC, 45 sec at 59 ºC, 1 min at
72 ºC, and a final extension step of 10 min at 72 ºC.
A total of 15 µl from the PCR product were run on two per cent standard agarose
gels at 100 V for 15 min. The fragments were visualized by ethidium bromide on a UV
transilluminator.
Table 4.2. Primer sequences and concentrations used in the two panels for
multiplexed ARMS-PCR assay.
Mutation [conc.]
wildtype Primer
mutant primer [conc.] PCR
product size
Panel 1-wt
Panel 1-mut
R133C 5 pmol
caatcaactccactttagagcG
caatcaactccactttagagcA 20 pmol 141bp
R168X 3 pmol
atcttaggtggtttctgctctcG
atcttaggtggtttctgctcacA 10 pmol 247bp
R255X 15 pmol
gtcggcctcagcttttcG
gtcggcctcagcttttcA
5 pmol 504bp
R294X 20 pmol gtacggtctcctgcacagatcG
gtacggtctcctgcacagatcA 10 pmol 625bp
Forward 10 pmol
GTTTGTCAGAGCGTTGTCACC 10 pmol
Panel 2-wt
Panel 2-mut
T158M 10 pmol ggggctccctctcccagttaccG
ggggctccctctcccagttaacA 5 pmol
220bp
R270X 10 pmol accacactccccggctttcG
accacactccccggctttcA
10 pmol
551bp
R306C 10 pmol gtctcccgggtcttgcG
gtctcccgggtcttgcA
10 pmol
656bp
Forward 10 pmol
GTTTGTCAGAGCGTTGTCACC
10 pmol
65
4.1.9.3. p.R106W mutation detection. The c.316 C>T (p.R106W) mutation was also
investigated by ARMS-PCR using the following primers: wild-type R106W-R: 5’-
ctgcctgaaggctggacac -3’, mutant R106W-W: 5’- ctgcctgaaggctggacat -3’and common
R106W-C: 5’- gccctgtagagataggagttgc -3’. Using the above cycling conditions with 10
pmol primers, a 112 bp long product was produced.
4.1.9.4. PCR-RFLP and DNA Sequencing. The mutations p.R106W (+NlaIII), p.T158M
(+NlaIII), p.R168X (+HphI), p.R270X (-NlaIV), and p.R306C (-HhaI) were screened
using PCR-RFLP whereas mutations p.R133C, p.R255X and p.R294X were investigated
by DNA sequencing as described in sections 4.1.3.1 and 4.1.4.
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