Table 5.
Levels of distance education and their definitions (based on Moore & Kearsley, 1996).
Level
Definition
Distance learning
programme
‘Activities carried out in a conventional college, university, school system,
or training department whose primary responsibilities include traditional
classroom instruction’ (p. 2–3)
Distance learning
unit
‘A special and separate unit within a conventional college, university, or
school system that is dedicated to distance learning activities’ (p. 3)
Distance learning
institution
‘The sole purpose of the institution is distance education [and] all activities
are exclusively devoted to distance education’ (p. 3)
Distance learning
consortia
‘Two or more distance learning institutions or units who share in either the
design or delivery of program, or both’ (p. 4)
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91
an important role in making the system work effectively. Depending on the circumstances
at the local and remote sites, roles and responsibilities of some stakeholders may overlap,
which will in turn affect the responsibilities of the online teacher. Knowing the different
components of the system and the scope of responsibilities of each stakeholder can help
the online teacher identify to whom and where to turn to for assistance. Furthermore, such
awareness can help the online teacher understand his/her own scope of responsibilities and
other responsibilities that may need to be absorbed if certain roles are not present in the
online learning system. The next section will provide recommendations for language
teacher education programmes based on the proposed framework for online language
teaching skills (Figure 2) and the systems view of online language learning.
Recommendations for language teacher education programmes
Presently, the main source of professional development in the area of online English as a
Second Language (ESL) teaching is offered by the TESOL Organisation through its
certificate programme (see TESOL, 2008). The profession has also begun to note the need
to identify effective pedagogical frameworks for teaching language online. A special
journal issue by CALICO (Stickler & Hauck, 2006b) and collections of works such as
Felix (2003b), Goertler and Winke (2008), and Holmberg, Shelley, and White (2005) are
great examples of such efforts. Despite these gallant efforts to exemplify good practices of
online language teaching through design, technological and pedagogical issues, little
emphasis has been placed on teacher education for the twenty-first century beyond the
ability to integrate technology into the classroom. Specifically, little has been done to
prepare language teachers for online language teaching. Using ideas from earlier sections,
such as the proposed framework for online teaching skills and the roles and responsibilities
of stakeholders in an online language learning system, this literature review presents four
recommendations for language teacher education to improve the state of preparedness of
language teachers for online language teaching: a) developing online language teaching
skills through existing courses; b) developing online teaching skills at different levels of
expertise and responsibilities for different roles; c) revamping existing technology training;
and d) implementing early virtual field experiences and virtual practicum.
Developing online language teaching skills through existing courses
As presented in the earlier section, online language teaching skills are divided into three
categories: a) technology in online language teaching; b) pedagogy of online language
teaching; and c) evaluation of online language teaching. Ideally, language teacher
education should include technology, methodology and evaluation courses that focus
solely on online language teaching issues because online language teaching is very different
from traditional language teaching. Realistically however, resource and time constraints
would hinder such efforts from fruition at most language teacher education programmes.
This literature review does not recommend immediate comprehensive teacher preparation
for online language teaching but rather a gradual and progressive change to prepare all
language teachers for the possibility of a career in online language teaching. This change
involves raising the level of awareness of all language teachers regarding the potential of
online language teaching and the knowledge level of basic principles and skills required for
successful endeavours in this new system. If language teachers are interested after being
exposed to the potential of online language teaching through their TESL or applied
linguistics programme, they could then pursue further professional development such as
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the certificate programme offered by the TESOL Organisation (TESOL, 2008) or possibly
a new certificate or specialisation in existing TESL or applied linguistic programmes.
The skills of incorporating socialisation techniques and fostering an online community
are difficult to achieve. Hampel and Stickler (2005) recommended that future online
language teachers experienced first hand the ‘need for building an online community’
through training events in the medium. As Slaouti and Motteram (2006, p. 89) put it:
‘teachers need to learn about online learning through online learning’. This first hand
experience – or situated learning – will illuminate the strengths and limitations of the
technologies for learning (Hubbard & Levy, 2006) as well as reduce tensions about the
realities of real teaching situations (Egbert, 2006). Bauer-Ramazani (2006) shared how a
CALL course was successfully offered fully online to help trainee teachers develop the
necessary competences for educational technology and apply them in their teaching
situations that ranged from TESL to K-12 classrooms. Additionally, the online course
itself was carefully designed using principles of distance learning (e.g. Palloff & Pratt, 1998,
2003; Warschauer, 2002) to provide a model of good practice. Kessler (2006) and Peters
(2006) called for the integration of CALL training into the overall language teacher
training programme including CALL or online language learning components within
methodology and pedagogy courses, especially if there is not a CALL specialist available.
Also, Hoven (2006, 2007) stressed on the importance of modelling and practice to
encourage familiarity with different technologies and their affordances. Thus, curriculum
design and methods courses should adopt an online or hybrid/blended approach through
which language teachers can experience how online social presence can differ from face-to-
face social presence and practice online community building strategies. Also, supplement-
ing traditional in-class experience with online experiences will help to highlight the need
for ‘netiquette’ and the importance of community building strategies that do not rely on
visual cues. Besides that, they can also identify online learning design features that are
effective and those that are weak.
Developing online teaching skills at different levels of expertise and responsibilities for
different roles
The proposed framework for online teaching skills in the earlier section identified three
levels of expertise: novice, proficient and expert. Language teacher training programmes
can use this framework to identify the skills that should be developed at different levels of
expertise and match that with their curriculum. Skills at the novice level, for example,
should be taught in the earlier years of their programmes, while skills at the proficient level
should be reserved for the later years. Meanwhile, the skills at the expert level may be
slowly developed in the final years and gained through field and practical experiences. (See
also the recommendation for early virtual field experiences and virtual practicum below.)
In addition to the different levels of expertise, language teacher training programmes
should also prepare their teachers for the possibility of different roles in an online language
learning system by integrating knowledge of online teaching skills at the novice level into
all existing programmes. While not all teachers are likely to become online language
teachers, some might find themselves as elected site coordinators or tutors in their future
work place. Therefore, language teachers should know what roles and responsibilities exist
in online learning systems and how the different components work together as a system.
Additionally, having basic online teaching skills will prepare language teachers for the
possibility of supporting an online language learner at a remote site. If all language teacher
programmes integrated the development of novice teacher skills into their curriculum, this
Computer Assisted Language Learning
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could ensure that the language teachers could take on site coordinator or tutor roles if
necessary.
Revamping existing technology training
Mandatory technology training for CALL purposes should be considered early in
language teacher training programmes. Hegelheimer (2006, p. 117) believed that ‘a
mandatory technology course early in a [language] teacher training programme’ as a
technology foundation can encourage its students to integrate technology more fully. He
feared that technology electives taken late in the teacher training programme would limit
opportunities for technological proficiency integration in the training process. He reported
that a mandatory technology course in a TESL MA programme showed positive impact
on its students as they were not only ‘more computer-literate and able to construct
instructional web resources . . . but also more adept at using and critically evaluating
technology in their teaching’ (p. 125). Results also showed that students were integrating
technology in their teaching assignments (as teaching assistants) by creating relevant
extensive projects in their own coursework. Also, this recommendation would be more
favourable than general technology electives in other departments since the course would
focus on TESL. As Hoven (2007, p. 137) pointed out, teachers’ adoption of change and
innovation are more likely ‘when they can see positive benefits in terms of direct relevance
to their content area, usefulness from a practical task perspective, and increased
effectiveness for their day-to-day classroom teaching.’ Additionally, by mandating this
course early in the programme, teaching trainees could benefit from the knowledge and
skills throughout the rest of their programme and experience increased confidence in
teaching with technology – unlike the participants in Peters (2006) who expressed
confidence in technological competences after a fourth-year technology integration course
‘yet still felt that they were not ready to integrate technology in the language classroom’
(p. 163).
While a mandatory technology course is a good recommendation, an alternative is to
integrate CALL technology training into existing courses. Peters (2006) and Desjardins
and Peters (2007) thought that a single course in technology integration might produce
quick technical knowledge and promote the use of technology for teaching rather than the
integration of technology in the curriculum. While Desjardins and Peters agreed with
Hegelheimer (2006) that a mandatory technology course should be offered early in the
programme, she added that this course was usually limited to technical aspects and could
send an unwanted message that ‘technology is an add-on rather than an integral part of
the [teacher education] programme’ (2007, p. 5). Simple steps can be taken to avoid this
situation. For instance, basic technological skills and knowledge of specific applications
taught in existing computer methods courses can be enhanced with discussions of
affordances and constraints in specific situations, particularly in online language learning
systems. Additionally, assignments, projects and tasks involving the use of technology for
language learning should incorporate principles of a selected language theory. For
example, using an experiential modelling approach in a technology and language learning
course, Hoven (2006, 2007) incorporated the use of blogs, wikis, and e-portfolios that
highlighted the principles of social constructive learning. Hoven (2007, p. 137) stated that
the experiential modelling approach allows the immersion of students in the use of the
technologies while allowing them the experience of ‘practical application of the theory in
their own learning’. Other examples include the training programme by Hampel and
Stickler (2005) in which they used animated online tutorials, specific training for
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L.K.L. Compton
applications and discussions of possibilities, constraints and implications of the electronic
medium for online language teaching to address the lowest levels of skills (technological
competence).
Implementing early virtual field experiences and virtual practicum
Language teacher training programmes can consider offering all their trainee teachers an
early virtual field experience in online language learning. This virtual field experience
would happen in the early stages of the programme before any student teaching experience
and provide opportunities for observation and ‘work with real students, teachers, and
curriculum in natural settings’ (i.e. online environments) (Huling, 1998). Such experiences
allow teaching trainees to personally experience and observe aspects of online language
teaching and online interactions through careful guidance and mediation. These carefully
guided observations will provide them ‘with the experiences necessary to build the complex
schema required’ to be an effective online language teacher, site coordinator or tutor.
(Huling, 1998, p. 3).
Because observation alone cannot provide a rigorous experience (Davis & Rose, 2007)
and does not result in substantive learning for effective teaching (Huling, 1998), early
virtual field experiences alone are insufficient to prepare trainee teachers for online
language teaching. Those who have experienced early virtual field experiences and
continue to express interest in a career in teaching languages online should then participate
in a virtual practicum. This virtual practicum should be offered in the final stages of the
programme after trainee teachers have had more exposure to online language teaching
skills at the proficient level through methods, technology and other relevant courses.
Recommendations provided in this section are based on the proposed framework for
online language teaching skills (Figure 2) and roles and responsibilities of stakeholders in
an online language learning system (Table 3). These recommendations stress a need for
ALL language teachers to acquire some basic online language teaching skills (at the novice
level) so they are at least able to serve as site coordinators or tutors in their future teaching
capacity. Those who wish to pursue careers as online language teachers should proceed to
gain more knowledge and skills through courses that include the development of online
teaching skills at the proficient and expert levels and relevant experience through virtual
practicums.
Summary and conclusion
This paper reviewed online language teaching skills, provided a critique of an existing
skills framework and highlighted the complexity of identifying online language teaching
skills. Online language teachers need to acquire skills beyond technological competence in
order to teach effectively in this online environment. While some skills such as technical
and software specific skills are easy to learn, other skills, such as facilitating online
socialising and community building, can be more challenging. Nonetheless, these skills are
essential in order to promote social cohesion that is necessary for meaningful
communicative interaction. A proposed framework for online language teaching skills
covering three categories of skills (technology, pedagogy and evaluation) at three levels of
expertise (novice, proficient and expert) is provided to guide language teacher education
programmes.
Additionally, a review of roles and responsibilities of stakeholders using a systems view
is included to show how different components work together to promote effective online
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95
learning. In any online language learning system, the online language teacher is likely to
work alongside other stakeholders. Each stakeholder bears different responsibilities.
Depending on the circumstances and available resources, online language teachers may
need to fill in the gap by shouldering additional responsibilities. Online language teachers
should be aware of the different roles and responsibilities in the online language learning
system so they are able to refer to the appropriate resources as well as identify missing gaps
and take necessary actions.
While online language learning has become more possible with the increase in com-
munication tools and the number of online language courses is increasing, teacher training
at its present state has not focused on preparing language teachers for the challenges of
teaching in an online environment. Since researchers and practitioners have warned against
the assumption of a natural transition in teaching skills from a face-to-face classroom into
an online environment, teacher educators need to pay more attention to the preparation of
future language teachers for this new learning system especially considering that the efforts
and cost of creating online materials ‘can be wasted without the adequate training of
teachers to present and support the learning’ (Hampel & Stickler, 2005, p. 312). As Salmon
(2003) stated: ‘Any significant initiative at changing teaching methods or the introduction
of technology into teaching and learning should include effective e-moderator support and
training, otherwise its outcomes are likely to be meagre and unsuccessful’ (p. 80). Thus, this
literature review ends with recommendations for teacher education programmes on how to
support the change in learning system through integration of online language teaching and
learning related issues in existing curriculum design and methods courses. After all, online
language teachers cannot be expected to become effective based on training meant for face-
to-face classrooms when these two environments involve different skills and responsi-
bilities. More research needs to be done to identify these skills and responsibilities so that
language teacher preparation programmes can continue to improve and serve the needs of
future online language teachers.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Niki Davis, my programme committee members, and the reviewers for
their constructive feedback on the early drafts of this manuscript. I also want to thank Dr. Shannon
Sauro for her help in my thought process on the framework.
Note
1.
‘Local’ refers to where the online teacher is located while ‘remote’ refers to where the DE student
is located.
Notes on contributor
Lily Compton is a doctoral candidate in Curriculum and Instructional Technology with a minor in
Applied Linguistics and Technology. Her research interests include teacher preparation for online
language learning and teaching, and using computer mediated communication for language learning.
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