In Sections I and II of this book, we considered general issues regarding

Integral citation
1 Baudrillard argues that representations of reality are really construc-
tions of reality.
8
2 I will refer to aspects of Swales’s (2004) model where relevant in this 
thesis.
Non-integral citation
3 This material is found to be relatively electron-beam sensitive [66].
4 This finding echoes those of other researchers (e.g. Boulton, 2010; 
Yoon, 2011).
Both integral and non-integral citation can be used with any type of cita-
tion convention, although there is a tendency for numerical conventions 
to employ more non-integral forms. The choice of citation type has been 
associated with the prominence assigned to the elements of the citation: 
integral citation places emphasis on the cited author, whereas non-integral 
citation gives emphasis to the finding. For this reason, very frequent integral 

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102 Teaching and assessing EAP
citations can create an impression of a less confident writer. Non-integral 
citation also allows the citation of multiple sources for a single statement, 
as in example 4, thus creating a more compressed and less explicit style of 
referencing.
It is also valuable for learners to study the grammar that is often used 
for citation, in particular, the use of a reporting clause followed by a that-
clause complement, as seen in example 1 above. Here, the reporting clause 
(Baudrillard argues) introduces the cited work, while the complement clause 
contains the cited finding. Reporting clauses are useful in citation because 
they allow the author to introduce the ideas and statements of others and 
at the same time to comment on them through the choice of reporting verb. 
Thus some reporting verbs, such as show and demonstrate, commit the 
writer to accepting the validity of the cited work; others (underestimate) 
show the writer’s lack of acceptance of the cited work; the majority, how-
ever, (argue, state) are neutral in terms of commitment. Hence reporting 
clauses are one of the ways in which authors can show their stance in rela-
tion to the literature.
A third approach to citation focuses on the functions they perform. Work 
by Petric´ (2007) on master’s dissertations distinguished seven different func-
tions and identified those that were more likely to occur in assignments 
that gained high grades. She found that the more successful writing tended 
to include citation types that incorporated some element of writer com-
ment or stance with regard to the source. These included evaluating the 
cited work, comparing the cited work with the writer’s work and establish-
ing links between two or more cited sources. By contrast, the lower rated 
assignments tended to use citation simply to attribute language or content 
to another source, without incorporating any comment on it.
Students in EAP classes, then, need practice not just in referring to the 
sources of ideas and content, but also in making clear how these sources 
contribute to the construction of their own argument. They may need help 
to convey the purpose of the citation in relation to their own work and to 
create their own research story out of the disciplinary literature.