Lecture 1 Introduction

Way of formation	Positive Degree	Comparative Degree
Superlative Degree
inflections	soft	softra	softost
root-sound interchange + inflections	lonζ	lenζra	lenζest
suppletion	ζōd	bettra	betest

In ME the following changes happened:

• 
  In most cases inflections -er, -est were used to form the comparative and the superlative degrees;
  
• 
  Root-sound interchange fell into disuse (long – longer – longest), though in some cases it was preserved as an exception from the rule (e.g. old – elder – eldest; far – further – furthest);
  
• 
  A new way of formation of the degrees of comparison appeared:
  

more + Adj (comparative) || most + Adj (superlative)
It was applicable to all adjectives and was interchangeable with -er, -est way of formation till 17^th – 18^th c. In NE, during the Normalisation Period, the modern rule appeared and this way was applicable only to a certain group of adjectives.
Lecture 17
The Development of the Pronoun. The Rise of Articles


Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns belong to an ancient class of words that goes back to two Indo-European roots – se and to. In OE the sound [Ө] started to dominate over the sound [s] due to the pressure of the system (the forms with the sound [Ө] were more numerous (see the table below)).
Demonstrative pronouns in OE changed in Gender, Number, Case:

Pronoun in ModE	Demonstrative Pronouns in OE
	Case	Masculine, Sg	Feminine, Sg	Neuter, Sg	Plural
that	Nom	se*	sēo*	þæt*	þa
	Gen	þes	þǽre	þæs	þara
	Dat	þæm	þǽre	þæm	þam
	Acc	þone	þā	þæt	þa
	Instr	þý*	þǽre	þý	þam
this	Nom	þes	þeos	þis*	þās
	Gen	þisses	þisse	þisses	þissa
	Dat	þissum	þisse	þissum	þissum
	Acc	þisne	þās	þis	þās
	Instr	þissum	þisse	þys	þissum

In ME the Case system disappeared due to the fact that there were some homonymous forms (see the table above: e.g. þǽre – F, Sg, Gen; F, Sg, Dat; F, Sg, Instr; þa – Pl, Nom; Pl, Acc; þisse – F, Sg, Gen; F, Sg, Dat) and due to phonetic reduction.

In NE the Gender was lost due to the fact that there were some homonymous forms (see the table above: e.g. þes/þæs – M, Sg, Gen; N, Sg, Gen; þæm – M, Sg, Dat; N, Sg, Dat; þissum – M, Sg, Dat; N, Sg, Dat) and the following changes happened to the pronouns marked with * in the table above:

• 
  se (M, Sg, Nom) – turned into the definite article “the” (discussed more particularly in the point “Rise of Articles” below);
  
• 
  sēo (F, Sg, Nom) – turned into the personal pronoun “she” (discussed more particularly in the point “Personal Pronouns” (changes in the 3^rd person) below);
  
• 
  þæt (N, Sg, Nom) – remained as the unchangeable demonstrative pronoun “that”;
  
• 
  þis (N, Sg, Nom) – remained as the unchangeable demonstrative pronoun “this”;
  
• 
  þý (M, Sg, Instr) – in OE was used in the comparative constructions like “the sooner…the better” but in NE was not distinguished any more phonetically and merged with the unchangeable form of the definite article “the”.
  

The only category that was left in the demonstrative pronouns was the Number (e.g. ModE this – these, that – those).


Rise of Articles
The articles have to do with the category of Determination (definiteness/indefiniteness).
Causes for Rise of Articles:

1. 
   In OE the there were two declensions of adjectives – strong (definite) and weak (indefinite) – and the inflections of these declensions indicated whether the noun that followed the adjective was definite or indefinite. At the end of the ME Period the declensions of the Adjective disappeared and there was a necessity to find another way to indicate the definiteness/indefiniteness of a noun. Thus the articles appeared.
   
2. 
   In OE the word-order was free because inflections were employed to show the relations of the words in a sentence. In ME and NE the majority of the inflections disappeared and the word-order became fixed. This meant that the first place in a sentence was usually occupied by the theme (information already known  marked with the definite article) and the second place – by the rheme (new information  marked with the indefinite article).
   

Definite Article
As it was mentioned above, the definite article appeared from the OE demonstrative pronoun se (M, Sg, Nom) from the paradigm of the OE demonstrative pronoun “that” because it was often used to indicate a definite object or notion.


Indefinite Article
The indefinite article appeared from the OE numeral ān (one) and had the meaning of “oneness” (it still indicates only nouns in Sg, i.e. nouns indicating one object or notion).
In OE ān had 5-case paradigm that was lost in ME and only one form was left – oon/one. Later it was employed in the building of the indefinite article a/an.


Personal Pronouns
See Lecture 14 for the categories of the personal pronouns.
Personal Pronouns possessed (and still do) a very vivid Indo-European feature – suppletivity (i.e. they build their forms with the help of different roots (see also Lecture 4)).
Personal pronouns in OE changed in Gender, Number, Case, Person: