Lecture 1: Philosophy as a discipline
People ordinarily study philosophy only when they go to college. But that has
nothing to do with the nature of the subject, as it can be of interest to intelligent high
school students with a taste for abstract ideas and theoretical arguments.
Our analytical capacities are often highly developed before we have learned a
great deal about the world, and around the age of fourteen many people start to think
about philosophical problems on their own-about what really exists, whether we can
know anything, whether anything is really right or wrong, whether life has any meaning,
whether death is the end. These problems have been written about for thousands of years,
but the philosophical raw material comes directly from the world and our relation to it,
not from writings of the past. That is why they come up again and again, in the heads of
people who haven't read about them.
This is a direct introduction to nine philosophical problems, each of which can be
understood in itself, without reference to the history of thought. I shall not discuss the
great philosophical writings of the past or the cultural background of those writings. The
centre of philosophy lies in certain questions which the reflective human mind finds
naturally puzzling, and the best way to begin the study of philosophy is to think about
them directly. Once you've done that, you are in a better position to appreciate the work
of others who have tried to solve the same problems.
Philosophy is different from science and from mathematics. Unlike science it
doesn't rely on experiments or observation, but only on thought. And unlike mathematics
it has no formal methods of proof. It is done just by asking questions, arguing, trying out
ideas and thinking of possible arguments against them, and wondering how our concepts
really work.
The main concern of philosophy is to question and understand very common ideas
that all of us use every day without thinking about them. A historian may ask what
happened at some time in the past, but a philosopher will ask, "What is time?" A
mathematician may investigate the relations among numbers, but a philosopher will ask,
"What is a number?" A physicist will ask what atoms are made of or what explains
gravity, but a philosopher will ask how we can know there is anything outside of our own
minds. A psychologist may investigate how children learn a language, but a philosopher
will ask, "What makes a word mean anything?" Anyone can ask whether it's wrong to
sneak into a movie without paying, but a philosopher will ask, "What makes an action
right or wrong?"
We couldn't get along in life without taking the ideas of time, number, knowledge,
language, right and wrong for granted most of the time; but in philosophy we investigate
those things themselves. The aim is to push our understanding of the world and ourselves
a bit deeper. Obviously, it isn't easy. The more basic the ideas you are trying to
investigate, the fewer tools you have to work with. There isn't much you can assume or
take for granted. So, philosophy is a somewhat dizzying activity, and few of its results go
unchallenged for long.
Before learning a lot of philosophical theories, it is better to get puzzled about the
philosophical questions which those theories try to answer. And the best way to do that
is to look at some possible solutions and see what is wrong with them. I'll try to leave the
problems open, but even if I say what I think, you have no reason to believe it unless you
find it convincing.