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Adapting the Narrative

Danielewski’s textual experiments place readers in a position to confront trauma through the space of the text, and in producing an uncanny space through his textual presentation, Danielewski introduces new psychological dimensions to our experience with the novel. As I have argued throughout this study, dwelling in the destabilizing moment of trauma allows for otherwise inaccessible moments of psychological and political clarity. Jenny Edkins’ concept of “trauma time” describes the processes by which individuals, in moments of trauma, are made aware of their incomplete relationship to institutional power. In this instant, social and political realities are temporarily laid bare. This section addresses adaptation as a narrative strategy that, in facilitating an uncanny encounter, may be used to dislodge readers from their entrenchment in the hegemonic narratives that conceal these realities. As a spatial tactic, the uncanny encourages readers to occupy multiple spaces simultaneously, which, first, enables critical confrontations with

trauma⁵ and, second, encourages discursive fluidity as readers are released from static, readerly subject positions. Like Danielewski’s textual apparatus, adaptation as a formal strategy opens similar possibilities for creative negotiations of textual space. Despite recent scholarship on adaptation as a formal strategy, relatively little attention has been given to its spatial dimensions and its ability to provoke psychological responses in readers, specifically as linked to the uncanny. In utilizing uncanny resonances to generate “trauma time,” adaptation encourages psychological and discursive activity that could not be achieved through conventional, hegemonic narrative structures, which, as became evident in the state-endorsed narratives following 9/11, only serve to deny individuals opportunities for establishing political subjectivity.

This section investigates Jane Smiley’s A Thousand Acres, a contemporary adaptation of King Lear, to examine how adaptation produces uncanny textual spaces that provide opportunities for immersive, experiential engagement with discourses on patriarchy and sexual violence. By probing the uncanny mechanics of adaptation, we can begin to understand how adapted texts encourage us to enter discursive, reflective, and interpretive spaces that exist outside of hegemonic political discourse, which, in the novel, are associated with the transparent and ubiquitous space of patriarchy. Smiley utilizes the uncanny, intertextual

⁵ As mentioned earlier, Freud’s 1916 essay links the uncanny to early experiences of childhood trauma. Stemming from the child’s traumatic separation from the mother’s womb, uncanny moments return us to repressed fears and anxieties that reside deep in the unconscious. Although Freud did not address the political dimensions of trauma, I am interested in the ways that the uncanny may induce a traumatic encounter, which, as Edkins and other contemporary trauma theorists

argue, can be politically productive.

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resonances between her novel and Shakespeare’s play to simulate her protagonist, Ginny’s, psychological confrontation with repressed incest and sexual abuse, which occurs within the domestic space of the house. These moments of violence in her youth, and her subsequent repression of these events as an adult, occur as a result of patriarchy’s transparent inscription on everyday life. Ginny’s uncanny encounter in her family home facilitates her personal and political growth in the novel, and the text’s ability to simulate this experience through formal strategies generates similarly productive opportunities for readers.

In much the same way that the discourses of homeland security discussed in chapter two embedded themselves in domestic space, preventing individuals from articulating political positions distinct from state narratives, patriarchy as a pervasive institutional program prevents Ginny from confronting and articulating her abuse in personally-meaningful ways. Sexual abuse, I argue, is a material effect of institutional patriarchy and is therefore political. Ginny’s rape is the result of narratives of masculine exceptionalism—woven into the social fabric— that legitimate violence and simultaneously deny women avenues through which to narrate and confront their trauma. In simulating this experience and in positioning readers in “trauma time,” Smiley creates a space in which readers may challenge a tradition of patriarchy both in the novel and without. Although I focus exclusively on Smiley’s novel, her work should not be read as unique as an adaptation; any work that calls attention to its participation in intertextual space likewise involves readers in uncanny psychological encounters. If utilized to

simulate political trauma, adaptation may help readers to achieve critical distance from narratives and political discourses that are otherwise transparent and universal.

The mechanics of adaptation require readers to confront the adaptation (the hypertext) and its source material (the hypotext) simultaneously, which provokes an uncanny psychological response capable of bringing readers closer to the experience of trauma. To engage this process, a text must utilize the uncanny dimensions of the hypertext to simulate the destabilizing experience of trauma, thereby inviting an encounter with, in Edkins’ terms, “the political.” Within the text’s discursive context (sexual abuse and patriarchy, in Smiley’s novel) readers, suspended in “trauma time,” may access political discourse outside of hegemonic channels. In order to unpack the uncanny dimensions of adaptation, it might first be useful to examine the ways in which the uncanny operates, spatially, on a formal level. In her article, “Reconstructing Love: King Lear and Theatre Architecture,” Peggy Phelan successfully navigates the ground between textual space and narrative space, or the space in which the characters interact within the work. Theatre space, she explains, allows the audience to experience both a physical location’s fixed points and, simultaneously, the freedom of mobility through the play’s manipulation of space and time. Phelan writes, “This sense of being in two different historical places at once is part of the compelling allure of the [theatre]” and this phenomenon suggests “something about the uncanny dimensions of theatrical architecture” (14). She describes the ways that theatre

architecture propels the audience into a state of psychological placelessness, which, in turn, complements the psychological desolation experienced by Lear over the course of the play. She writes, “Without a fixed boundary in time or space, theatre strips us of our location and gives us a taste of property-less being. Exposed with Lear to the elemental force of the need for love, the audience of King Lear also loses the sheltering consolations of architectural form” (33).

Phelan’s methodology bridges the ground between theatre space and the action of the play. The theatre thus creates a space in which the audience opens itself to the unsettling experience of unfamiliarity in an otherwise familiar environment.

Phelan’s use of space includes both the physical place of the stage and the discursive space of the text and the performance; Shakespeare is able to engage both of these territories to effect an uncanny response in the audience. As an intertextual practice, adaptation generates a similar discursive space that the reader both engages and produces through her interaction with the text. Insofar as adaptation engages (at least) two textual spaces simultaneously and defamiliarizes readers from the source text, as a formal strategy, like Phelan’s theatrical stage, it propels readers outside of systemic narrative structures that usually deny creative engagement. In this process, readers are removed from the hegemony of a central narrative. In order to generate this critical distance, adaptation must sustain uncanny resonances through repetition; the success of the adaptation depends largely on its ability to remind readers continually of the hypotext’s ghostly presence within the narrative. Linda Hutcheon’s commentary on repetition as an

essential component of adaptation clarifies this phenomenon. She writes, “Adaptation is repetition, but repetition without replication. And there are manifestly many different possible intentions behind the act of adaptation: the urge to consume and erase the memory of the adapted text or to call it into question” (7). In either case, the hypotext must repeatedly speak through the adaptation, reminding the reader of its presence within a second spatial environment. This process has psychological consequences insofar as it asks readers to question the autonomy of the adaptation and therefore question the stability of the text. Freud explains this process in terms of ego-development and the longing for a return to a state of simplicity. He writes, “[these moments of instability] are a harking-back to particular phases in the evolution of the self- regarding feeling, a regression to a time when the ego had not yet marked itself off sharply from the external world and from other people” (10). Adaptation’s ability to destabilize texts by exposing origins therefore involves us in a figurative return to innocence that has profound psychological reverberations.

Adaptation’s dependence on repetition further resonates with Freud’s understanding of the uncanny. In adaptation, each character and each sequence in the narrative has a corollary in the hypotext, and this relationship—made visible through repetition—contains the potential for an experience of the uncanny. Freud discusses the haunting presence of “doubles” in literature, or characters whose similarity to one another disorients the reader. He explains the uncanny responses such associations can provoke and the essential role repetition plays in this

dynamic. He writes, “[in confronting the double] there is the constant recurrence of the same thing — the repetition of the same features or character-traits or vicissitudes, of the same crimes, or even the same names through several consecutive generations” (9). Like the double, adapted characters achieve their uncanny duality through repetition; as the hypertext repeatedly evokes its origins, the reader experiences a sense of textual familiarity, and this, Freud would argue, indicates a longing for psychological stability and innocence. In A Thousand Acres, for instance, Smiley makes overt references to Lear through naming. Each character’s name resonates with its adapted double: Ginny (Goneril), Rose (Regan), Larry (Lear), etc. Furthermore, the major plot points in King Lear are represented in Smiley’s novel in proper sequential order.⁶ These overt connections between the two texts prompt the reader to continually set them against one another, and this process reveals the uncanny duality between the novel and the play. The uncanny experience occurs as the reader realizes that the hypertext has radically and irrevocably destabilized these established origins.

Placed in an unstable textual environment and exposed to these moments of uncanny suspension, readers occupy a textual “other space” that facilitates marginalized, suppressed political discourse.

Other critics invested in adaptation theory have discussed the presence of the uncanny in similar terms. Linda Hutcheon addresses this phenomenon in

⁶ For a more detailed discussion on the resonances and absences extant in the two works, see David Brauner’s essay, “‘Speak Again’: The Politics of Rewriting in A Thousand Acres.” Brauner’s writing details the creative act of storytelling that allows both Smiley and Ginny to create alternate histories that are at once empowering and self-destructive.

terms of palimpsests, arguing that hypertexts are always haunted by their hypotexts (6). Marjorie Garber’s book, Shakespeare’s Ghost Writers, offers useful commentary on the uncanny presence built into Shakespeare’s plays and, more specifically, into the concept of Shakespeare as an author, whose unstable literary origins imbue his plays with a ghostly function linked to the uncanny. Garber’s perspective is useful insofar as it denotes the psychological processes at play during encounters with Shakespearean adaptation, and, through an alternative vocabulary, it complements and expands upon Hutcheon’s commentary on palimpsests. What these critics fail to address, however, is the possibility of utilizing the experience of the uncanny to enable political production. Removing readers from conventional narrative structures through psychological displacement, the uncanny resonances of adaptation likewise remove readers from the political discourses embedded in these structures.

Having theorized the uncanny spatial dynamics of adaptation, I now turn to Smiley’s novel to demonstrate how readers’ interactions with its spatial dynamics are, in fact, essential to its commentary on trauma and, more broadly, patriarchy. Setting her novel on a farm in Iowa, Smiley re-conceptualizes Shakespeare’s characters in a rural context, as the aging Larry, the patriarchal presence in the novel and also the perpetrator of rape and incest, bestows upon his daughters the thousand acres of farmland that he owns. Perhaps acknowledging the impossibility of confronting trauma through language, Smiley depicts her characters’ uncanny interactions with domestic space, inviting us interactively to

share the experience of trauma through the space of the text. This maneuver requires readers to enter the textual space of adaptation—that is, engage in the intertextual spatial practices inherent in the form—in order to transgress the boundary that separates form from content in the novel. In this way, the radical act that the novel depicts—the freeing of one’s self from the grips of patriarchy and its concomitant narratives—becomes paramount for the reader, too, as she participates in the intertextual space of adaptation.

The novel’s pivotal scene occurs as Ginny, unaware of the sexual violence perpetrated on her in her youth, confronts her traumatic past through an uncanny encounter with domestic space in her childhood home. After her sister, Rose, informs her of the sexual abuse they had both experienced as children, Ginny returns to the familiar space of the house to unearth memories of her mother and her past. She explains, “It was not as though I forgot that I’d been there every day of my life…I ignored the fact that the place was depressingly familiar, that Rose and I had spring-cleaned there every year. There had to be something” (Smiley 225). As she moves from room to room, the house begins to take on unheimlich characteristics that signal a movement away from the sense of familiarity she initially experiences. She is unable, for instance, to recognize herself or her sisters in old family photographs. Finally, as she ascends the staircase to her bedroom where the sexual abuse occurred, she notes “a kind of self-conscious distance from my body as it rose up the staircase. My hand on the banister looked white and strange, my feet seemed oddly careful as they counted out the steps” (227).

This moment suggests a psychological experience of the uncanny, one that moments later allows Ginny to recall her father having sex with her in that space. By using the domestic space of the house—space imbued with memory and familiarity—Ginny surrenders to its unheimlich dimensions, thereby opening herself to confront the repressed trauma of her childhood. This experience, as I discuss below, mirrors the psychologically and politically destabilizing process that readers engage as they negotiate the novel’s intertextual space. Smiley thus situates the experience of the uncanny as a necessary means of confronting trauma, and, as she develops the uncanny associations between her text and Shakespeare’s, she reveals the possibility of involving the reader in a similar psychological exercise.

Adaptation, and its ability to provoke the uncanny through psychological association with literary origins, is the critical intertextual practice that removes readers from conventional narrative structures. By involving them in the dialogic process of intertextual reading, Smiley places readers in a position similar to Ginny’s, insofar as they, too, must carry out spatial practices that reach back to origins in an effort to confront the trauma of political violence, embodied here by Shakespeare, who, as critics like Harold Bloom have shown, functions as a patriarchal origin of sorts in contemporary literature. As detailed above, adaptation—through defamiliarization and repetition—provokes an uncanny experience that unearths repressed childhood memories and trauma. By utilizing Shakespeare’s hypotext as the familiar origin and her own novel, A Thousand

Acres, as the defamiliarizing hypertext, Smiley generates an uncanny textual space that simulates Ginny’s psychologically-jarring experience in her childhood home; if Shakespeare’s play functions as a “home” for readers encountering its literary offshoots, then the defamiliarizing process of adaptation brings us psychologically and politically nearer to Ginny and her rejection of a tradition of patriarchy.⁷

What is important, here, is the reader’s interactive position in textual space. The extent to which readers identify connections between and absences within the two texts depends on their familiarity with King Lear and their ability to negotiate the territory between the two texts. De Certeau writes, “to read is to wander through an imposed system…[A] system of verbal or iconic signs is a reservoir of forms to which the reader must give a meaning…He combines their fragments and creates something un-known in the space organized by their capacity for allowing an indefinite plurality of meanings” (169). Recognizing that adaptation is a space between texts and not a clearly delineated system of signs, Smiley invites us into a textual space that requires creative, interpretive engagement. Understanding that the uncanny experience is an exclusively spatial practice, she relies upon this reader-centered approach to induce the sensation of a spatial environment existing between the texts. As readers engage “an indefinite

⁷ If one were to follow this thread, it could be argued that Smiley’s complex machinery of adaptation destabilizes the patriarchal foundations of Western literature, embodied here by Shakespeare as a literary construct and an institution unto itself. For this purposes of this short section on adaptation, it is sufficient to say that Smiley’s use of adaptation provokes an uncanny encounter that invites readers into the politically-destabilizing moment of trauma time.

plurality of meanings,” in the spirit of Lefebvre’s ideas on the production of space, we generate the space of the adaptation.

By directly involving readers in the same spatial practices in which her characters participate, Smiley immerses readers in the space of the text, which enables them to address political discourses of sexual violence and patriarchy outside of traditional narrative structures. These structures, as I have argued throughout this dissertation, are inherently political and often provide only limited channels for political expression. The task for both Ginny and readers of the novel is to locate and inhabit spaces for narrative production that exist outside of these hegemonic narrative structures. Readers may easily identify Smiley’s feminist agenda in the novel, most clearly evident through Ginny’s narration and her shifting attitude toward patriarchy, but the novel’s subtle formal tactics in fact prove more important to Smiley’s aims with the text. Through adaptation, she locates us outside of a patriarchal tradition that has engrained itself in the modern psyche and whose presence in contemporary thought is still very much embedded in dominant discourses of power. Adaptation facilitates this exchange. By exposing its machinery, we can see how Smiley’s approach is by no means exceptional. Writers cognizant of the uncanny dimensions of adaptation may involve readers in productive discursive activity, creating psychologically and politically productive counter spaces that provide critical distance from otherwise pervasive institutional narratives.