Socioeconomic, regional, and cultural factors . In each quadrant of
Figure 1 , senders’ vocal
qualities may be influenced by socioeconomic, regional, and cultural factors. In terms of the more
static, nonconscious qualities of speech, Brown & Lambert (1976) observed differences in the
vocal qualities of blue- versus white-collar French Canadian workers. Accents may provide cues to
which region of the same country a sender is from (e.g., southern and northern France) (Aubanel
& Nguyen 2010). Such vocal differences may serve as potential markers of a sender’s background.
Other pitch differences might reflect the nonconscious or conscious adoption of cultural or
gender rules over a lifetime (distal time factors). For example, Japanese women’s pitch tends to be
higher than Dutch women’s, perhaps due to greater societal pressures to appear feminine in the
former than the latter cultural setting (Van Bezooijen 1995) (quadrant 1 or 4). Upspeak or uptalk
(using a rising pitch and uncertain tone at the end of a sentence, often assumed to reflect a less
confident or dominant person) points to the possibility that vocal qualities serve as gender markers
that are actively constructed by senders as a function of situational forces (Linneman 2012). For
instance, Linneman (2012) noted that men’s and women’s use of uptalk differed when they were
experiencing greater success on a television show (e.g., answering questions correctly on
Jeopardy );
specifically, men’s use of uptalk dropped, whereas women’s use of uptalk increased. This gender
difference may be due to women feeling a greater need to apologize to others for their success
than is the case with men (Linneman 2012) (quadrant 3).
Lastly, in terms of the more dynamic qualities of speech, as mentioned above, senders may
deliberately change their speech patterns to match the class of people that they aspire to be part of
(LaBov 1966) (quadrant 3), or they may nonconsciously mimic a speaker’s tone of voice (Smith-
Genth ˆos et al. 2015).