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3-methylbut-2-enyl
caffeate
and
3-methylbutyl
ferulate
(Bankova
et al,
1987;
Amoros
et al,
1994).
Antifungal activity
Millet-Clerc
et al (1987) reported
that propo-
lis exhibited
an
important
antifungal
activ-
ity against
Trichophyton
and
Mycrosporum
in
the presence of
propylene glycol,
which
interacts
synergistically
at
a
5%
concentra-
tion.
Combinations of
some
antimycotic
drugs
with
propolis (10%)
increased their
activity
on
Candida albicans
yeasts.
The
greatest
synergistic
effect
against
most
strains
was
obtained when
propolis
was
added
to
antifungal
drugs (Holderna
and
Kedzia, 1987).
Valdés
et al (1987)
tested
30
propolis samples produced
in
Cuba
against
2
strains of
C albicans. Lisa
et
al
(1989)
verified the
antifungal activity
of
propolis
extracts
(10%
in
ethanol) against
17
fungal pathogens.
The EEP inhibited
Candida and all tested
dermatophytes.
Fer-
nandes Junior
et
al
(1994)
evaluated the
antifungal
activity
of EEP
against
C
albi-
cans,
C
parapsilosis,
C
tropicalis
and
C
guil-
liermondii;
98%
of
fungi
samples
were
sen-
sitive
to EEP
concentrations
of less than
5.0%. Lori
(1990)
observed that in in vitro
tests,
propolis
concentrations of 5
or
10%
prevented growth
of
Trichophyton
verruco-
sum.
The
antifungal activity
of
propolis
was
observed in
some
plant
fungi
in vitro
(La
Torre
et al,
1990).
Cytotoxic
activity
Extracts of
propolis
have been examined
for in vitro
cytotoxic activity by
different meth-
ods of tissue culture in
some
cell lines.
Hladón
et al (1980) investigated
the
cyto-
static
activity
of
propolis
extracts
on
human
KB
(nasopharinx carcinoma)
and HeLa
(human
cervical
carcinoma)
cell lines. The
ethereal
propolis
fraction
(DEEP)
exhibited
the
strongest cytostatic
activity.
The
sec-
ondary
fractions of
ethyl
acetate
and butanol
of DEEP
presented
a
good activity.
Inter-
mediate
activity
was
verified
in
the
CHCl
3
/DEEP
fraction. The
killing
action
of
propolis
on
HeLa cells
was
tested
by
Ban
et
al
(1983).
A concentration of 10
mg/ml
caused 50% inhibition of
colony-forming
ability.
In
assessing
the
killing
action of
propolis,
flavonoids
were
also tested. HeLa
cells
were
found
to
be
more
sensitive
to
quercetin
and
rhamnetin,
but less sensitive
to
galangin. Grunberger
et
al
(1988)
described caffeic acid
phenethyl
ester
(CAPE)
as
the
compound partially
respon-
sible for the
cytostatic properties
of propo-
lis. The effect of
CAPE
on
human
cancer
cell lines
was
tested
in
breast carcinoma
(MCF-7)
and melanoma
(SK-MEL-28
and
SK-MEL-170)
cell lines in culture. A dose
of 10
μg/ml
of CAPE
completely
inhibited
the
incorporation
of
[
3
H]thymidine
into the
DNA of breast carcinoma. More dramatic
effects
were
observed in the
melanoma,
colon
(HT 29)
and renal
carcinoma cell
lines,
but the
CAPE effect
on
normal fibroblasts
and
melanocytes
was
significantly
less.
Because the
cytostatic
action of CAPE is
more
effective in transformed
cells,
it is
rea-
sonable
to
assume
that it is
responsible
for
the claimed carcinostatic
properties
of
propolis.
The antitumoral
activity
of caffeic acid
derivatives,
eg,
methyl
ferulate,
methyl acetyl
ferulate, methyl acetyl
isoferulate and
methyl
diacetyl
caffeate,
was
reported by Inayama
et
al,
1984.
The
effect of other caffeic acid
derivatives has been
investigated by König
(1988).
Ross
(1990) reported
that
the
cyto-
toxic
effect of
propolis
in vitro
against
Chi-
nese
hamster ovary
cancer
cell lines
was
due
to
naphthalene
derivatives in
propolis.
In vitro tests of
extracts
of Brazilian
propolis
from
A
mellifera
on
human
hepatocellular
carcinoma,
KB and HeLa cell lines showed
that the
cytotoxic
effects
were
caused
by
quercetin,
caffeic acid and
phenyl
ester
con-
stituents of
propolis (Matsuno, 1992).
Scheller
et
al
(1989c)
reported
a
cytotoxic
activity
of
propolis
in mice
bearing
Ehrlich
carcinoma in vivo.
Antiprotozoan activity
Scheller
et al (1977b) reported antiproto-
zoan
activity
of
propolis (EEP)
in vitro
on
3
strains of Trichomonas
vaginalis.
EEP solu-
tions
in
vitro
presented
a
lethal
activity
on
strains
at
a
concentration of 150
mg/ml.
The
antiprotozoan activity
of
propolis
was
verified
in
experimental
animals
infected
with Eimeria
magna,
E
media and
E
per-
forans treated with 3% EEP and other
antiprotozoan drugs.
The coccidiostatic
effect of
propolis
was
higher
than other
drugs (Hollands
et al,
1988a). Propolis
preparations
were
classified
as a
good
coc-
cidiostat
against
Chilomonas
paramecium
(Hollands
etal,
1988b).
Torres
et al (1990)
evaluated the
effect of EEP
on
the
growth
of
the
protozoan
parasite
Giardia lamblia in
vitro. At
an
EEP concentration of 11.6
mg/ml
there
was a
98%
inhibition
effect.
Other
properties
Many
other
biological
and
pharmacological
properties
of
propolis
have been described
by
various
authors,
including
regeneration
of
cartilaginous
tissue
(Scheller
et al,
1977a),
bone tissue
(Stojko
et al,
1978)
and dental
pulp
(Scheller
et al, 1978;
Magro
Filho and
Perri de
Carvalho,
1990),
anaesthetic
activ-
ity (Paintz
and
Metzner,
1979), hepato-
protective activity
(Giurgea
et al, 1985, 1987;
Hollands
et al, 1991;
Tushevskii
et al,
1991),
increasing
the number of
plaque-forming
cells in the
spleen
of
populations
of immu-
nized males
(Scheller
et
al,
1988),
immunomodulatory
action
(Benková
et
al,
1989;
Dimov
et al, 1991,
1992),
immuno-
genic properties (Scheller
et al,
1989d),
liver
detoxifying
action,
choleretic and antiulcer
action in vitro
(Kedzia
et al,
1990),
antioxi-
dant
activity
(Yanishlieva
and
Marinova,
1986;
Krol
et al, 1990;
Scheller
et al, 1990;
Dobrowolski
et al, 1991;
Misic
et al, 1991;
Olinescu, 1991;
Volpert and
Elstner, 1993a,
1993b),
anticaries in
rats
(Ikeno
et al,
1991),
protection agent against
gamma irradiation
in mice
(Scheller
et al,
1989b),
antileish-
maniosis
in
hamster
(Sartori
et al,
1994),
antitrypanosomal
agent
(Higashi
et al,
1991)
and inhibition
of
dihydrofolate
reductase
activity
(Strehl et al, 1994).
Toxicity
As
propolis
use
increases,
its
side-effects
are
observed
more
frequently (Wanscher,
1976; Petersen, 1977;
Monti
et al, 1983;
Ayala
et al, 1985;
Machácková,
1985;
Rudzki
et al, 1985;
Tosti
et al, 1985;
Cirasino
et al, 1987;
Hausen
et al, 1987b;
Sartoris
et al, 1987;
Young,
1987;
Hay
and
Greig,
1990).
Propolis
contains
some
compounds
which
cause
toxicity. Beekeeper’s
dermati-
tis due
to
propolis
is well known and
an
apparent
association between
sensitivity
to
propolis
and
to
poplar
resins has been
observed
(Hausen
et al, 1987a,
b).
Hausen
et al (1987b)
described the inci-
dence
of
nearly
200
cases
of
allergic
con-
tact
dermatitis due
to
propolis.
They
identified
a
substance
1,1-dimethylallyl
caffeic acid
(LB-1) responsible
for the
allergy.
They
also
described the
sensitizing properties
of LB-
1
in
guinea pigs provoked by
several propo-
lis
samples, demonstrating
that this
com-
pound
is the main sensitizer in
propolis.
The
flavonoid
tectochrysin
was
considered
a sec-
ond
allergen, although
Schmalle
et al (1986)
stated that
tectochrysin
was a
very weak
sensitizer. Hashimoto
et al (1988)
verified
the
allergenic properties
of
phenylethyl
and
prenyl
esters
of caffeic acids from
propolis.
Observations
of
propolis
used
orally
sug-
gest
that intestinal
absorption
could
play
an
important
role in
propolis
sensitization. Lim-
iting
the
extent
of oral administration may
be useful in
preventing propolis allergy
(Angelini
et al, 1987;
Hausen
et al, 1987a,
1988;
Kleinhans, 1987;
Trevisan and
Kokelj,
1987;
Machácková,
1988).
Therapeutic
activity
Propolis
has been used since ancient times
in the remedies in
folk medicine in many
parts
of the world
(Ghisalberti, 1979).
It has
a
long
tradition
of medicinal
use
in many
parts
of the world.
Many
European
coun-
tries
are
interested in natural
products
to
heal diseases and
propolis
is
an
important
product
used for this purpose. It is found in
pharmaceutical
and
cosmetic
products,
such
as
anti-acne
lotion,
face
creams,
ointments,
lotions and solutions
(Debuyser,
1983;
Leje-
une
et al, 1988;
Pons and
Cueto,
1988,
1989; Goetz,
1990).
Propolis
in
dermatology
Bolshakova
(1975)
treated 110
patients
infected with
Trichophyton
on
the
hairy
zone
of the head with 50%
propolis (as
an
unguent).
In 97
patients,
it
was
found
to
pro-
duce excellent results.
Other
examples
of
the
treatment
of
dermatological
diseases
were
described when
propolis
was
used
as
an
antiseptic (Bolshakova,
1975;
Gafar
et
al,
1986), antimycotic (Holderna
and
Kedzia,
1987;
Millet-Clerc
et al,
1987),
bacteriostatic
(Soboleva
et al, 1990;
Dobrowolski
et al,
1991;
Stark
and
Glinski, 1993; Ventura Coll
et al,
1993),
antiviral
(Giurcaneanu
et al,
1988;
Vachy
et al,
1990)
and
fungistatic
(Millet-Clerc
et al,
1987) agent. Many
other
propolis applications
in
dermatology
have
been described. It has been used
for wound
healing,
tissue
regeneration,
treatment
of
burns, neurodermatitis,
microbial
eczema,
contact
dermatitis,
leg
ulcers,
psoriasis,
mor-
phea, herpes simplex
and
genitalis, pruri-
tus
ani,
dermatophytes, trophic
ulcers,
pulp
gangrene and
as an
astringent
(Bolshakova,
1975;
Molnar-Toth, 1975;
Scheller
et al,
1977a, 1978;
Ghisalberti, 1979;
Korsun,
1983;
Gafar
et al, 1986;
Hausen
et al,
1987a;
Giurcaneanu
et al, 1988;
Ponce de
Leon and
Benitez, 1988;
Goetz,
1990;
Fierro
Morales,
1994).
Propolis
in
otorhinolaryngologic
(ORL)
diseases
Matel
et al (1973)
described the
treatment
of
126
subjects
suffering
of external
otitis,
chronic
mesotympanic
otitis and
tympan
perforation
with
propolis
solutions
(5-10%)
which had
a
positive therapeutic
result in
most
cases.
Propolis
effects in other
ORL
diseases
were
reported:
acute
inflamma-
tions of the
ear
(Kachnii,
1975;
Palos
et al,
1989),
treatment
of
mesotympanitis (Pop-
nikolov
et
al,
1973), pharyngitis
(Doroshenko, 1975),
tuberculosis
(Karimova
and
Rodionova,
1975),
chronic bronchitis
(Chuhrienko
et al, 1989;
Scheller
et al,
1989a), rhinopharyngolaryngitis (Isakbaev,
1986),
pharyngolaryngitis
(Lin
et al,
1993a)
vasomotor
catarrh
treatment
(Zommer-
Urbanska
et al,
1987)
and rhinitis
(Nuñez
et al,
1988/1989).
Propolis
in
gynecological
diseases
Zawadzki and Scheller
(1973)
investigated
90
cases
of
therapeutic activity
of
3%
EEP in
cases
of
vagina
and
uterus
cervix inflam-
mation
caused
by
S
pyogenes.
They
observed that
more
than 50%
of the
cases
responded
well
to treatment
with EEP. The
action of
propolis
to treat
inflammatory
and
distrophic
lesions of the female
genital
sys-
tem
caused
by protozoan
and
fungi
has been
studied.
Some
137
cases
of
diffuse inflam-
mations,
ulcerations and ex-ulcerations
of
cervix uteri diseases
were
investigated by
Roman
et al (1989).
After 20-25 d of
asso-
ciated
treatment
(allopathic
and
apithera-
peutic)
very
good
results
were
obtained in
53
cases,
good
results in
24,
and
satisfactory
in
28
cases.
The results obtained
by
Roman
et
al (1989)
confirm that
propolis potentiates
the
antiseptic, antifungal
and antit-
rychomonas
actions
of
specific
chemical
medicines.
Stojko
and
Stojko
(1993)
also
reported
the
use
of
propolis preparations
for
treatment
of
gynecological
disorders.
Propolis
in
stomatology
Mirayes
et
al
(1988)
described
a
clinical
assay with
an
extract
of
propolis
that showed
its
efficacy against giardiasis.
Some 138
patients
were
studied,
48
children and 90
adults,
and treated with
propolis (in
children,
concentration of 10% and adults
20%).
At
these
concentrations,
52%
of the children
showed
a cure.
In
adults,
the
propolis
effect
was
the
same as
tinidazole,
an
antiproto-
zoan
drug.
When the
propolis
concentra-
tion
was
elevated
to
30%,
there
was a
higher
efficacy (60%
cure versus
40%
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