SECTION 3 Questions 27-40
You are advised to spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40.
Read the following text and answer Questions 27-40.
300-year-old
secrets of
Stradivarius violins can cost £2 million. Does
their sound match their price? Julian Brown asks
what a 17
th
century craftsman knew that modern
instrument makers are only just discovering.
ntonio Stradivari was born in
1б44,
into a respected family of craftsmen in
Cremona, a northern Italian town that was
already tamed far afield for its violins.
Stradivari was apprenticed to the
instrument maker Nicolo Amati at around the
age of 12 and by the time he died, aged 93,
he had made around a thousand violins and
at least 300 other stringed instruments,
including cellos, lutes and guitars.
A productive life, certainly, and a
reasonably well-rewarded one: he sold most
of his output for the equivalent of around
£4
each, and appeared well satisfied with the
moderate, middle-class income and lifestyle
his craft brought him and his family.
Stradivari could never have dreamt that, 250
years after his death, his violins are
auctioned and reach prices anywhere from
£200,000 to several million.
What makes a Stradivarius violin so
valuable? That's a question that continues to
intrigue musicians, scientists and the public
to this day. For decades, scientists and violin
makers have tried to establish the
Stradivarius's "secrets".
During his career, Stradivari made certain
subtle changes in the proportions of the
violin, gradually increasing the instrument's
power. While his early work followed the
traditions of his teacher Amati, by the close
of the 17
th
century the Stradivarius had
become flatter and broader and the bridge
began to look much as it does today.
But violin makers have long copied the
proportions of Stradivarius's instruments
without achieving the same results. So the
secret must lie elsewhere. But where? In the
deep, lustrous auburn-red varnish, according
to one theory. But there's a problem. Strads
have withstood nearly 300 years of wear and
Practice Test: GT Reading
tear. Not surprisingly, the rich varnish on
many of them has taken a battering and, in
some cases, most of it has been worn away.
Yet these instruments still sound magnificent.
In the 1980s a US researcher came up with
a new theory: the secret lay in the wood.
Stradivari used wood - maple and spruce -
that was delivered to Cremona by being
floated along the Italian canals; perhaps the
contact with water had changed its character.
The idea was initially supported by electron
microscope pictures of the violin's surface:
Strad wood was found to be riddled with
tiny, open pores, while those of modern
instruments were tightly closed.
But later research suggested that whether
the pores showed as open or closed under
examination was not dependent on the
violin at all, but rather on how the wood
sample had been cut and prepared before it
was examined under microscopy.
Electron microscopy, however, may yet
provide the answer. Recent research in
Cambridge has found a layer beneath the
Strad's famed varnish. Under the electron
microscope it appears like a seam of
marzipan sandwiched between the cake of
wood and the icing-like varnish. Claire
Barlow and Jim Woodhouse, who work in
Cambridge University's Engineering
Department, were able to obtain a few small
samples of wood taken from Strads and
other old instruments that were undergoing
restoration. They subjected the middle layer
to spectroscopic x-ray analysis to find out
what it contained. The results varied from
sample to sample, but they all contained a
range of minerals including aluminium,
silicon, phosphorous and calcium.
This turns out to be consistent with
another idea put forward in the 1980s. For
some time experts had been arguing over
whether the craftsmen of Cremona had used
some kind of wood sealant before applying
varnish to the instruments they were making.
John Chipura, an American geologist and
violin enthusiast, published a letter in the
magazine The Strad suggesting that this
sealant may well have been a layer of
Roman cement. Readily available, the cement
was made from local materials including
volcanic ash, whose mineral constituents are
very similar to those revealed by Barlow and
Woodhouse's spectroscopic analysis.
Even so, Barlow is reluctant to draw any
firm conclusions about the purpose of the
layer. "It's tempting to think that it might
have been applied as a sealant, or to provide
a smooth surface on which you could
varnish easily. But these layers are much
thicker than you'd need to do either of those
things. They were put on for some purpose
that we still don't really understand."
Barlow's collaborator, Jim Woodhouse, has
spent many years studying the acoustics of
violins and he was interested to find out
what effect the mineral layer would have on
the sound quality of the instruments.
"Virtually any treatment of the wood, such
as a preservative or varnish, will change the
vibrational properties of the violin and
therefore its sound," he explains. "We have
taken flat plates of spruce and varnished
them with various combinations of finishes,
but the differences in the vibrational
properties we found were really rather
subtle. So there may be an effect, but it's not
immediately obvious."
Undoubtedly Stradivari was a supreme
craftsman, but the secret of his genius may
not lie in one aspect of his craftsmanship but
in a combination of factors, "To make a
violin you've got to do a great many things
right and in harmony with one another." says
Woodhouse. "If there is a secret to the
Stradivarius sound, it is in achieving a perfect
balance."
Practice Test: GT Reading
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