discomfort with the online experience. Additionally, NNSs learners expressed frustration
in scheduling attempts and they believed that the NSs did not benefit from their
collaborative experiences and may have felt frustrated or bored. These negative
experiences could be minimised if the sense of community had been established prior to
the task-based interactions. In particular, the sense of community and trust might have
helped to alleviate the NNSs’ concerns of making mistakes if they did not feel judged or
feel they were holding up the online conversation, which in turn could have resulted in a
more positive interpersonal interaction with high level interactions.
The fifth level of skills requires the online instructor to be an effective facilitator of
communicative competence. This skill builds upon the successful socialisation of students
and the promotion of social cohesion: Hampel and Stickler (2005) noted that meaningful
communicative interaction ‘would hardly take place in a classroom without social
cohesion and would certainly not provide successful practice opportunities for
communicative encounters’ (p. 318). They asserted that in communicative language
teaching, interaction between participants is crucial and can be achieved in an online
course through task design.
A study of a telecollaborative project between students of English in Germany and
students of German in Australia by O’Dowd and Ritter (2006) provides evidence of the
need to develop social cohesion and importance of task design. An intended topic of
comparison of media coverage of a global event was misinterpreted as a debate about
religion and resulted in superficial exchanges because a strong sense of community had not
been established. Results showed that the task design and lack of social cohesion
prevented the students from meaningful interactions. One student commented in his final
evaluation:
Not everyone is interested in the Pope and/or religion. So our messages about this were very
short and superficial . . .. This disturbed the rather personal beginning of the exchange. It is
definitely not a good choice as the second task for people who barely know each other.
(O’Dowd & Ritter, 2006, p. 636)
The researchers concluded that the ‘task design, . . . [and] the students’ psychobio-
graphical backgrounds led to interaction failures’ (p. 637).
Creativity and choice are the sixth level of skills for online language tutors. Chapelle
and Hegelheimer (2004) noted that ‘searching, evaluating and repurposing of materials’
are important web literacy skills that all twenty-first century teachers should have since the
world wide web provides such a wide range of resources for teaching. For an online tutor,
these skills are necessary to aid the selection of ‘good, authentic language learning
materials . . . and [creativity in] designing online activities with the communicative
principles in mind’ (Hampel & Stickler, 2005, p. 319). Creativity is not only limited to
the design of the materials but also with finding new uses for online tools. For example,
most text and voice chat freeware applications were originally offered as social tools but
they can be used to mediate communicative language activities. Hampel and Stickler also
shared an example of creativity where a ‘yes’ button in Lyceum, the institution’s
synchronous audio-graphic conferencing system, was originally intended for voting but
later used as a signal of consent to a verbal statement.
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In the event of working with pre-prepared materials, it is necessary to have skills to
select, implement and adapt given tasks for successful online language teaching in addition
to the critical understanding of affordances and constraints of the technologies and
mediums of communication and interaction. Davis and Rose (2007, p. 9) added that ‘an
understanding of how and when to provide student support, how and when to provide
opportunities for interaction, the appropriate selection and use of resources, and the
development of resources to serve specific instructional purposes’ are necessary skills for
online teaching.
The seventh and highest level of skills for online language teaching includes the ability
to develop a ‘personal teaching style, using the media and materials to their best
advantage, forming a rapport with [the] students and using the resources creatively to
promote active and communicative language learning’ (Hampel & Stickler, 2005, p. 319).
In essence, this level of skills requires the online tutor to master all of the previous levels of
skills listed in the pyramid. These skills do not come naturally and may require tutors with
face-to-face teaching experiences to re-discover their teaching styles. Hampel and Stickler
noted that inexperienced tutors may find the lack of body language restrictive at first, but
an increase familiarity and confidence with lower level skills can help them find new
teaching styles. They also added that some problems encountered during online teaching
may be similar or parallel to those in face-to-face classes but the solutions may be
different. Thus, the online tutors have to develop new teaching styles that will be suitable
to the medium of instruction.
Critique of Hampel and Stickler’s skills pyramid
In this sub-section, I will address the limitations of Hampel and Stickler’s (2005) skills
pyramid and use them to propose a modified framework in the next section.
Hampel and Stickler (2005) presented their online teaching skills in a pyramid form to
indicate that the skills ‘build on one another, from the most general skills forming a fairly
broad base to an apex of individual and personal styles’ (p. 316). They added that the
lower level skills have to be achieved before the higher level skills can come to fruition. In
doing so, there is an implication that these skills have to be developed sequentially. I would
argue that some of these skills can be developed concurrently and do not necessarily have
to come in the order implied in the pyramid. For instance, acquiring specific technical
competence and dealing with constraints and possibilities of the medium are both
technology related issues. An online language tutor who is learning new software can also
learn to deal with the constraints and possibilities at the same time. It may even be more
beneficial to develop those skills together since all software applications have strengths and
weaknesses and not all software is intended for online language learning.
Meanwhile, online socialisation and facilitation of communicative competence are
both pedagogical issues that can be dealt with simultaneously or in any order, since they
relate to strategies of teaching. Online socialisation is important because it helps to create a
sense of community, which in turn helps to facilitate online interaction. Therefore, an
online language tutor should learn strategies that will facilitate online socialisation and
promote interaction at the same time so that learners can develop their communicative
competence.
L2 acquisition may not necessarily require online socialisation. Intrapersonal inter-
actions that focus on the learner’s mind and interpersonal interactions between learner and
content (Chapelle, 2005) do not require any online socialisation with other learners or the
tutor. Thus, the online language tutor should know how to facilitate L2 acquisition rather
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than online socialisation. In this case, it is important for the online language tutor to focus
on the curriculum, tasks and the delivery method rather than the online community.
Besides the limitation implied in the sequencing, the pyramid does not provide any
indication of when an online language tutor is ready to teach. A look at the pyramid
suggests that a tutor who has developed his/her own style of teaching has achieved the
highest level of skills but this may not necessarily be the same level as that at which a tutor
is ready or allowed to teach. In spite of this, there are no guidelines from the pyramid to
show when that should happen.
Hampel and Stickler (2005) stated that ‘online language teachers require different skills
compared to online teachers of other subjects’ (p. 312). However, only one skill (i.e.
facilitating communicative competence) is specific to online language learning. In general,
the pyramid provides a framework that appears to be applicable to any online teaching
context. Other important skills and competences of online language teaching, such as
application of language learning theories, online language assessment and task evaluation,
are not included. Knowledge of language learning theories, assessment and task
evaluations are not only important for any language courses, they are also different for
an online context. Therefore, it is crucial that a framework for online language teaching
should address these skills.
This section began with a review of Hamel and Stickler’s (2005) pyramid of skills for
online language teaching and continued with a review of its limitations. In the following
section, an alternate framework for online language teaching skills will be provided based
on synthesis of literature including the mentioned pyramid of skills.
A proposed framework for online language teaching skills
In this section, I propose a framework for online language teaching skills that is intended
to guide language teacher training programmes. This framework is built based on
synthesis of literature in CALL and teacher education. It attempts to address the
limitations in Hampel and Stickler’s (2005) skills pyramid. The framework focuses solely
on the skills of an online language teacher and excludes any other roles played by the
learning institution, student services or instructional technology services.
Abras and Sunshine (2008) called for technology related benchmarks in teacher training,
including course design, content, pedagogy and technology as well as methodology and
theory of second language learning. Figure 2 shows the proposed framework for online
language teaching skills that attempts to address the suggested benchmarks. As indicated in
the framework, there are three major sets of online language teaching: a) technology in
online language teaching; b) pedagogy of online language teaching; and c) evaluation of
online language teaching. The first set, technological skills, relate to knowledge and ability
to handle hardware and software issues. Next, the pedagogical skills refer to knowledge and
ability to conduct and facilitate teaching and learning activities. Lastly, the evaluative skills
refer to the analytical ability to assess the tasks and overall course and make necessary
modifications to ensure language learning objectives are met.
Each of these sets has different skills that are essential for online language teaching.
These skills are also organised into three levels of expertise: novice, proficient and expert.
These levels are not absolute but rather a continuum of expertise. The skills within each
level can be developed individually or simultaneously but they are necessary in order to
proceed to the next level of expertise. For instance, any skills listed in any of the three sets
(technology, pedagogy and evaluation) under the novice level can be developed in any
order and combinations. However, these skills have to be developed before they can
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Figure
2.
Proposed
framework
for
online
language
teaching
skills.
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L.K.L. Compton
proceed to the next level of skills listed at the proficient level. Additionally, in order to
limit the scope of this literature review, this framework only lists a range of key skills that
should be given primary focus but acknowledges that there may be other skills that can be
added to the framework.
Technological skills
Technological skills in this subsection are divided into three levels of expertise: novice,
proficient and expert. At each of the levels, there is a main emphasis underlying the
technological skills. The emphasis at the novice level is for the teacher to become a
proficient user of technology. Familiarity with a range of technology can then help to
increase the teacher’s confidence in using the technology for teaching purposes. At the
proficient level, the emphasis is on being an effective judge of different technologies so the
teacher can choose the best technology given a certain set of conditions. This is similar to
the sixth level skill (choice) listed in Figure 1. Figure 1 also lists creativity at the sixth level.
In this proposed framework, creativity is separated from choice and reserved for the expert
teacher who has become confident and successful at using, choosing and modifying
relevant technologies for online language learning.
At the first level, the basic technological skills as defined by Hampel and Stickler (2005)
are necessary prerequisites for any novice teachers. This includes the ability to turn on a
computer, use a mouse and basic knowledge of simple applications, e.g. word processing
and the internet. Based on these basic skills, a novice online language teacher should
proceed to be a proficient user of various technologies that could be used for online
language learning. Since communicative competence is an important facet of language
learning, the novice teacher should also learn about the differences between asynchronous
and synchronous technologies and be comfortable in using computer-mediated commu-
nication (CMC) technologies which include text, audio, and video conferencing.
Additionally, a novice teacher should also be familiar with CMS (e.g. Blackboard,
webCT and Moodle), and able to navigate through one or more systems. While learning to
use different software, the novice teacher should be able to identify and compare features
in similar software (e.g. Yahoo Messenger versus Skype or webCT versus Moodle).
At the next level of expertise, a proficient teacher can build upon his/her knowledge as
a technology user and be good at making choices. This includes familiarity with different
software and having the ability to carefully select suitable technology to match the online
language tasks. Also, the proficient teacher can find available software (freeware and
commercial software) and make an informed decision based on the pros and cons.
Complementary to this skill is the ability to deal with the limitations of the chosen
software and provide solutions to overcome the limitations. Also, the proficient teacher is
capable of drawing on the software’s existing features to facilitate the language learning
process including content delivery, online interactions and course management.
Chapelle and Hegelheimer (2004) stated that all twenty-first century language teachers
should be able to troubleshoot basic browser problems since almost all information will be
accessed through a browser interface. They added that these teachers should also have
expertise ranging from ‘creating basic web pages [using WYSIWYG (What-You-See-Is-
What-You-Get) programmes] on one end of the continuum to programming an online
course on the other end’ (p. 307). A proficient online language teacher should have some
ability to troubleshoot basic browser programmes as recommended by Chapelle and
Hegelheimer. Examples of these skills would include recognition of basic extensions
(e.g. .doc, .png, .exe, .jpeg and .mov) and being able to identify, download and install
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appropriate browser plug-ins. As for web pages, a proficient teacher should at least be able
to design basic web pages using WYSIWYG programmes as well as insert hyperlinks and
links to media files.
Next on the expertise continuum, an expert teacher is able to creatively use and adapt
existing technologies for online language learning tasks. Since many software applications
were not originally created for online language learning, the expert teacher has to be
creative in using the existing features to provide online interactions. For instance, Second
Life, a 3D virtual world, was originally intended for social networking and fantasy
gaming. Users can connect with other ‘residents’ of this virtual world through voice and
text chat. However, an expert teacher would be able to explore the use of Second Life for
role-playing to provide learners with opportunities for practicing language. Examples of
creativity in such areas by expert teachers are evident through the creation of and
participation in Second Life English (http://www.secondlifeenglish.com/news.php). In
addition, the expert teacher is able to construct dynamic and interactive web pages that
can enhance online language learning activities as well as the delivery of content. They
may also be able to create basic applications using programming knowledge.
Pedagogical skills
Similar to the technological skills, there is also an underlying emphasis for each level of
pedagogical skills. At the novice level, the emphasis is for the teacher to acquire adequate
information or knowledge. At the proficient level, the emphasis is on application of the
knowledge that has been acquired at the novice level, while the emphasis at the expert level
is on creativity with knowledge and application.
Since many online language courses involve more than one student, there is a need for
online community building and socialisation. The novice teacher should therefore be
aware of their importance and different strategies to promote them. Also, the novice
teacher should be knowledgeable about different ways to facilitate communicative
competence and online interaction. Besides that, the teacher should also know different
language learning theories and strategies for online language assessment. Lyddon and
Sydorenko (2008) for instance, presented a range of assessment tools ranging from
computer-adaptive tests to CMC assessments for the four basic communication skills
(listening, reading, writing and speaking) that would be useful for online language learning
assessment.
In addition to language learning theories and online language assessment strategies,
knowledge of online language learning curriculum design is also important, since learning
language online is different from learning language in a traditional face-to-face setting.
Lai, Zhao, and Li (2008) for example, proposed some design principles for distance foreign
language environments that deal with the course communication component and the
course structure component. Table 1 shows their proposed framework.
At the proficient level, the teacher should be able to choose suitable materials and tasks
for online language learning. The proficient teacher is also able to adapt one or more
language learning theories and course design frameworks for the online language learning
context, and select materials and tasks accordingly. Additionally, the teacher is also able to
assess language learning using a range of assessment methods.
Once a teacher has gained confidence in online language teaching and exposure to a
range of tasks, activities, and materials, they may become more creative in using and
adapting materials and tasks for online language learning purposes. Creativity may also be
expressed in ingenious ways to facilitate online socialisation and community building. At
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this point, a personal style of teaching as indicated in the seventh (highest) level in Figure 1
would emerge. The expert teacher is also more intuitive with formative assessment, i.e.
able to identify learners’ progress easily based on learners’ language output, and able to
integrate several ways of language assessments through formative and summative
methods. (See Lyddon & Sydorenko, 2008 for ideas on formative and summative online
language assessment.)
Evaluation skills
A creative teacher may not necessarily be successful at teaching if the learning tasks do not
lead to the desired outcomes. Moreover, as pointed out by Chapelle (2001), teachers need
to know what kind of CALL tasks may be beneficial. Therefore, knowledge of CALL and/
or online language learning tasks, software and course evaluation are necessary for online
language teachers so that appropriate modifications can be made.
At the novice level, the teacher should have knowledge of different types of evaluation.
For example, Chapelle (2001) identified three levels of analysis (software, task and
learner’s performance) to improve CALL evaluation. Firstly, aspects to focus on (but not
limited to) software use include its impact on control, interactivity and feedback.
Secondly, the task should be evaluated based on its impact on learners’ online interactions
and opportunities for negotiation of meaning. Thirdly, the learners’ performance can be
used to evaluate if desired learning outcomes are met through the online tasks.
Knowledge of one or more suitable evaluation frameworks (e.g. Chapelle, 2001) is also
important for evaluating the effectiveness of the CALL learning activities. For example,
Chapelle also provided a framework to evaluate CALL task appropriateness (Table 2) that
can be adapted for online language learning tasks. Chapelle’s framework uses six criteria
to evaluate CALL task appropriateness: language learning potential, meaning focus,
learner fit, authenticity, positive impact and practicality. While this framework was
Table 1.
Design principles for distance foreign language environments (Lai, Zhao, & Li, 2008,
p. 90).
Components
Principles
Course
communication
. Provide many opportunities for various forms of interaction with different
interlocutors in both written and oral modes
. Facilitate high-quality interactions with multiple opportunities for
negotiation of meaning and cultural understanding
. Provide clear instructions, course expectations, and technical support
. Provide quality feedback in a timely manner and encourage peer feedback Dostları ilə paylaş: |