Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2004) 63: 564
–566
DOI 10.1007/s00253-003-1453-x
S H O RT C O N T R I B U T I O N
R. Haas . O. Tsivunchyk . K. Steinbach . E. v. Löw .
K. Scheibner . M. Hofrichter
Conversion of adamsite (phenarsarzin chloride)
by fungal manganese peroxidase
Received: 4 July 2003 / Revised: 11 August 2003 / Accepted: 7 September 2003 / Published online: 16 October 2003
# Springer-Verlag 2003
Abstract Fungal manganese peroxidase was found to
convert the persistent chemical warfare agent adamsite
(phenarsarzin chloride) in a cell-free reaction mixture
containing sodium malonate, Mn
2+
ions, and reduced
glutathione. The organo-arsenical compound disappeared
completely within 48 h accompanied by the formation of a
more polar metabolite with a clearly modified UV
spectrum. Thus, As(III) in the adamsite molecule was
oxidized by manganese peroxidase to As(V) which added
dioxygen and released chloride.
Introduction
Organo-arsenical compounds are highly poisonous (blis-
tering agents) and were produced as chemical warfare
agents (CWA) by several countries (Franke et al.
1994
).
Some of these compounds
—above all aromatic derivatives
such as Pfiffikus (phenylarsin chloride) or Clark (diphe-
nylarsin chloride)
—are persistent in the environment and
thus have been found in former production, assembly, and
storage sites of CWA.
There are only a few reports dealing with the biological
conversion of organo-arsenical compounds. The bacterial
hydrolysis of Lewisite I has been shown to yield 2-
chloroarsinoxide which is a less toxic metabolite (Mulbry
and Rainina
1998
). We have recently demonstrated that
the fungal enzyme manganese peroxidase (Mn peroxidase)
is capable of converting several organo-arsenical CWA in
a cell-free reaction system comprising manganese ions
(Mn
2+
), sodium malonate, and reduced glutathione (GSH)
(Haas et al.
2003
).
Mn peroxidase is thought to be a key enzyme in the
biodegradation of lignin by higher fungi (basidiomycetes),
which secrete the biocatalyst into their microenvironment
(Hatakka
2001
, Hofrichter
2002
). There, Mn peroxidase
oxidizes Mn
2+
, which is ubiquitous in all lignocelluloses
and soils, into highly reactive Mn
3+
. The latter is stabilized
by organic acids (e.g. oxalate), also secreted by fungi, via
the formation of chelate complexes, which are small
enough to diffuse into the tight lignocellulosic complex.
Mn
3+
-chelates act in turn as low-molecular-mass redox
mediators which oxidize aromatic lignin moieties (War-
iishi et al.
1992
). In addition to lignin, the Mn peroxidase
system also attacks other persistent organic substances,
including several organopollutants, e.g. nitro- and haloaro-
matic compounds as well as polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons (PAH) (Collins and Dobson
1996
, Hofrichter et al.
1998
, VanAken et al.
1999
).
In the present study, we report on the conversion of
phenarsazin chloride (adamsite)
—a particularly recalci-
trant aromatic CWA
—by isolated Mn peroxidase. Since
this compound cannot be analyzed by the standard
R. Haas (
*)
Office of Environmental Investigation and Research,
Stadtwaldstrasse 45a,
35037 Marburg, Germany
e-mail: haasr@gmx.net
O. Tsivunchyk
Yanka Kupala, Grodno State University,
Ozheshko Ulica 22,
230023 Grodno, Republic of Belarus
K. Steinbach
Department of Chemistry, Philipps University of Marburg,
Hans-Meerwein-Str.,
35037 Marburg, Germany
O. Tsivunchyk . E. v. Löw
Institute of Immunology, Philipps University of Marburg,
Pilgrimstein 2,
35037 Marburg, Germany
K. Scheibner
JenaBios GmbH,
Löbstedter Strasse 78,
07749 Jena, Germany
M. Hofrichter
Unit of Environmental Biotechnology, International Graduate
School Zittau,
Markt 23,
02763 Zittau, Germany
gaschromatographic method (Haas et al.
1998
), a specific
HPLC method has been developed.
Material and methods
Enzyme and reagents
Manganese peroxidase (Mn peroxidase) from the South American
sulfur tuft Nematoloma (Hypholoma) frowardii was obtained from
JenaBios (Jena, Germany) as freeze-dried powder and dissolved in
water prior to use. Mn peroxidase activity was measured by
following the formation of Mn
3+
-malonate complexes at 270 nm
(
ε
270
=11.53 mM
−1
cm
−1
; Wariishi et al.
1992
). Glutathione (GSH),
malonic acid, and manganese chloride (MnCl
2
·4 H
2
O) were
purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemie (Taufkirchen, Germany).
Adamsite was a gift from the Hazard Control GmbH (Versuchsfeld
Trauen, Faßberg, Germany).
Reaction mixture
The cell-free reaction solution consisted of sodium malonate
(50 mM, pH 4.5), MnCl
2
(2 mM), GSH (5 mM), methanol p.a.
(17.5 vol. %, to dissolve the organo-arsenical compunds), adamsite
(382.3 µM=90 mg l
−1
) and Mn peroxidase (3 U ml
−1
). The reaction
was carried out in 20-ml vials containing 5.7 ml of the reaction
solution at 24°C without shaking or stirring. Samples containing the
same reaction mixture, but lacking Mn peroxidase, served as
controls. All experiments were done in duplicate. After 2, 4, 8, 24,
48, 72 and 144 h, samples (0.5 ml) were taken from the reaction
solution, mixed with 0.5 ml methanol, transferred into 1.4-ml HPLC
vials, and stored at
−20°C until analysis.
In a control experiment, we checked whether methanol stopped
the enzymatic reaction. This was necessary because each HPLC
analysis lasted 75 min and the vials were stored in the auto-sampler
for up to 20 h prior to measurement. Thus, 1 h after starting the
reaction, two control vials containing the complete reaction solution
were mixed with methanol to give a final concentration of 50 vol.%.
The adamsite concentration was measured in these samples after 2,
24, 36 and 48 h. A second control experiment was done under the
conditions described above but using heat-inactivated Mn peroxi-
dase (boiled for 10 min).
High performance liquid chromatography
A specific HPLC method was developed for the detection of
adamsite and its metabolite. A Gynkotek HPLC system (Germering,
Germany) consisting of following components was used: M 480
pump, GT-103 degaser, GINA 50 autosampler, UVD 340-S diode
array detector (2 nm spectral resolution) and a Gynkosoft V 5.50
data acquisition and controlling system. The system was equipped
with a Nucleosil 120 RP-18 column (5 µm, 3×250 mm, with
precolumn 3×10 mm; Fa. Macherey-Nagel, Düren, Germany),
which was adjusted to 20°C with a STH 585 column oven.
Separations were run using a stepwise gradient of 20
–100%
methanol [20% (0 min), 20
–80% (45 min), 80–100% (1 min),
100% (20 min)] in deionized water with a constant flow rate of
0.5 min/min. Eluted substances were detected at 210 and 230 nm;
UV spectra were recorded in a range from 190 to 400 nm.
HPLC-MS analyses for the identification of the adamsite
metabolite were done under the same HPLC conditions, but using
a mass spectrometric coupling (with the electrospray method) for the
detection (TSQ 700, Finnigan MAT, Bremen, Deutschland).
Results
Mn peroxidase rapidly converted adamsite in the reaction
solution (Fig.
1
). About 45% of the initial adamsite
disappeared within the first hour of incubation and 23 h
later, more than 95% of the compound was converted;
after 48 h, only traces of adamsite (<0.1 mg l
−1
) were still
detectable. Controls without Mn peroxidase did not show
any decrease in the adamsite concentration throughout the
entire experiment (144 h). Simultaneous with the disap-
pearance of adamsite, a polar metabolite was formed in
Mn-peroxidase-containing samples that eluted earlier than
adamsite (Fig.
2
). The possible metabolite was colorless
but its UV spectrum showed some changes in spectral
behavior relative to the original adamsite (Fig.
3
). Thus,
the metabolite lost the absorption maximum at 350 nm and
showed only a shoulder in the range between 320 and
350 nm. In addition, the three other absorption maxima of
the original adamsite (at 306, 280, and 228 nm) were
shifted towards shorter wavelengths (303, 273, and
218 nm, respectively) (Fig.
3
).
Both control experiments showed that the reaction was
enzymatic. Heat-inactivated Mn peroxidase did not
convert adamsite and the reaction stopped after the
addition of methanol (50 vol. %); the concentration of
both adamsite and the formed metabolite remained stable
in this methanolic solution over a period of at least 48 h.
This finding confirms the earlier observation that methanol
or other organic solvents (e.g. acetonitrile, N,N-dimethyl-
formamide) at a concentration of 50 vol. % completely
inhibit the activity of Mn peroxidase (Hofrichter 1999,
unpublished result).
Additional investigations with coupled HPLC-MS did
not result in interpretable mass spectra of the adamsite
metabolite, which may be attributed to its high polarity.
565
Fig. 1 Time course of the disappearance of adamsite (circles) and
the formation of a polar metabolite (diamonds) in an enzymatic
reaction mixture containing manganese peroxidase, sodium mal-
onate, MnCl
2
, glutathione and H
2
O
2
. IU HPLC integration units.
Experiments were carried out in duplicate; the standard deviation
was <5%
566
Discussion
The fungal enzyme Mn peroxidase was found to be
capable of converting the organo-arsenical CWA adamsite
in vitro. The conversion resulted in the formation of a
stable, polar metabolite with a clearly modified UV
spectrum.
The metabolite formed in the course of the conversion
of adamsite showed a considerably shorter retention time
of 8.5 min in the HPLC elution profile than the original
compound, i.e. the metabolite possesses a noticeably
higher polarity. Although the UV spectrum of the
metabolite was changed, it was still similar to that of
adamsite. Thus, the incorporation of polar groups (e.g. of a
phenolic hydroxyl groups) into the aromatic ring system of
the molecule can be ruled out, since otherwise more
drastic changes in the spectrum would be expected.
Instead, we propose that the trivalent arsenic [As(III)] in
the adamsite molecule was oxidized by Mn peroxidase
into As(V) resulting in the spontaneous release of chloride
and the incorporation of dioxygen. A similar reaction has
been reported for the oxidation of other organo-arsenical
CWA by concentrated peroxides (e.g. H
2
O
2
) (Franke et al.
1994
).
The present results confirm our previous findings that
fungal Mn peroxidase is a potent biocatalyst to convert
hazardous organopollutants (Fritsche et al.
2000
). Future
studies will need to clarify whether this enzymatic system
reduces the acute toxicity of organo-arsenical compounds
and can be applied to removing CWA from the environ-
ment (Pointing
2001
).
References
Collins PJ, Dobson ADW (1996) Oxidation of fluorene and
phenanthrene by Mn(II) dependent peroxidase activity in
whole cultures of Trametes (Coriolus) versicolor. Biotechnol
Lett 18:801
–804
Franke S, Koehler KF, Zaddach H (1994) Chemie der Kampfstoffe.
Munster
Fritsche W, Scheibner K, Herre A, Hofrichter M (2000) Fungal
degradation of explosives: TNT and related nitroaromatic
compounds. In: Spain JC, Hughes JB, Knackmuss H-J (eds)
Nitroaromatic compounds and explosives. Lewis, Boca Raton,
Florida, pp 213
–237
Haas, R, Krippendorf A, Schmidt TC, Steinbach K, v.Löw E (1998)
Chemisch-analytische Untersuchung von Arsenkampfstoffen
und ihren Metaboliten. UWSF
—Z. Umweltchem Ökotox
10:289
–293
Haas R, Scheibner K, Hofrichter M (2003) Enzymatische Umset-
zung von Arsenkampfstoffen durch das Pilzenzym Mangan-
Peroxidase. UWSF
—Z. Umweltchem Oekotox, in press
Hatakka A (2001) Biodegradation of lignin, In: Hofrichter M,
Steinbüchel A (eds) Biopolymers, vol 1. Lignin, humic
substances and coal. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, pp
129
–180
Hofrichter M. (2002) Review: lignin conversion by manganese
peroxidase (Mn peroxidase). Enzyme Microb Technol 30:454
–
466
Hofrichter M, Scheibner K, Schneegaß I, Fritsche W (1998)
Enzymatic combustion of aromatic and aliphatic compounds
by manganese peroxidase from Nematoloma frowardii. Appl
Environ Microbiol 64:399
–404
Mulbry W, Rainina E (1998) Biodegradation of chemical warfare
agents. ASM News 64:325
–331
Pointing SB (2001) Feasibility of bioremediation by white-rot fungi.
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 57:20
–33
VanAken B, Godefroid LM, Peres CM, Naveau H, Agathos SN
(1999) Mineralization of
14
C-U-ring labeled 4-hydroxylamino-
2,6-dinitrotoluene by manganese-dependent peroxidase of the
white-rot basidiomycete Phlebia radiata. J Biotechnol 68:159–
169
Wariishi H, Valli K, Gold MH (1992) Manganese(II) oxidation by
manganese peroxidase from the basidiomycete Phanerochaete
chrysosporium. Kinetic mechanism and role of chelator. J Biol
Chem 267:23688
–95
Fig. 2 HPLC elution profiles of the adamsite-containing reaction
solution after 0, 8 and 24 h of incubation at 24°C. As the
concentration of adamsite declined, that of a more polar metabolite
increased accordingly
Fig. 3 UV spectra of the original adamsite (dotted line) and the
metabolite formed as the result of manganese peroxidase activity
(solid line)
Document Outline - Sec1
- Sec2
- Sec3
- Sec4
- Sec5
- Sec6
- Fig1
- Sec7
- Bib1
- CR1
- CR2
- CR3
- CR4
- CR5
- CR6
- CR7
- CR8
- CR9
- CR10
- CR11
- CR12
- Fig2
- Fig3
Dostları ilə paylaş: |