5
ASCETICISM AND THE SPIRIT
OF CAPITALISM
In order to understand the connection between the fundamental
religious ideas of ascetic Protestantism and its maxims for every-
day economic conduct, it is necessary to examine with especial
care such writings as have evidently been derived from minis-
terial practice. For in a time in which the beyond meant every-
thing, when the social position of the Christian depended upon
his admission to the Communion, the clergyman, through his
ministry, Church discipline, and preaching, exercised an influ-
ence (as a glance at collections of consilia, casus conscientiæ, etc.,
shows) which we modern men are entirely unable to picture. In
such a time the religious forces which express themselves
through such channels are the decisive influences in the forma-
tion of national character.
For the purposes of this chapter, though by no means for all
purposes, we can treat ascetic Protestantism as a single whole.
But since that side of English Puritanism which was derived
from Calvinism gives the most consistent religious basis for the
idea of the calling, we shall, following our previous method,
place one of its representatives at the centre of the discussion.
Richard Baxter stands out above many other writers on Puritan
ethics, both because of his eminently practical and realistic atti-
tude, and, at the same time, because of the universal recognition
accorded to his works, which have gone through many new
editions and translations. He was a Presbyterian and an apologist
of the Westminster Synod, but at the same time, like so many of
the best spirits of his time, gradually grew away from the
dogmas of pure Calvinism. At heart he opposed Cromwell’s
usurpation as he would any revolution. He was unfavourable to
the sects and the fanatical enthusiasm of the saints, but was very
broad-minded about external peculiarities and objective towards
his opponents. He sought his field of labour most especially in
the practical promotion of the moral life through the Church. In
the pursuit of this end, as one of the most successful ministers
known to history, he placed his services at the disposal of the
Parliamentary Government, of Cromwell, and of the Restora-
tion,
1
until he retired from office under the last, before St.
Bartholomew’s day. His Christian Directory is the most complete
compendium of Puritan ethics, and is continually adjusted to the
practical experiences of his own ministerial activity. In com-
parison we shall make use of Spener’s Theologische Bedenken, as
representative of German Pietism, Barclay’s Apology for the
Quakers, and some other representatives of ascetic ethics,
2
which, however, in the interest of space, will be limited as far
as possible.
3
Now, in glancing at Baxter’s Saints’ Everlasting Rest, or his Christian
Directory, or similar works of others,
4
one is struck at first glance
by the emphasis placed, in the discussion of wealth
5
and its
acquisition, on the ebionitic elements of the New Testament.
6
Wealth as such is a great danger; its temptations never end, and
its pursuit
7
is not only senseless as compared with the dominat-
ing importance of the Kingdom of God, but it is morally suspect.
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
103
Here asceticism seems to have turned much more sharply against
the acquisition of earthly goods than it did in Calvin, who saw
no hindrance to the effectiveness of the clergy in their wealth,
but rather a thoroughly desirable enhancement of their prestige.
Hence he permitted them to employ their means profitably.
Examples of the condemnation of the pursuit of money and
goods may be gathered without end from Puritan writings, and
may be contrasted with the late mediæval ethical literature,
which was much more open-minded on this point.
Moreover, these doubts were meant with perfect seriousness;
only it is necessary to examine them somewhat more closely in
order to understand their true ethical significance and implica-
tions. The real moral objection is to relaxation in the security of
possession,
8
the enjoyment of wealth with the consequence of
idleness and the temptations of the flesh, above all of distraction
from the pursuit of a righteous life. In fact, it is only because
possession involves this danger of relaxation that it is objection-
able at all. For the saints’ everlasting rest is in the next world; on
earth man must, to be certain of his state of grace, “do the works
of him who sent him, as long as it is yet day”. Not leisure and
enjoyment, but only activity serves to increase the glory of God,
according to the definite manifestations of His will.
9
Waste of time is thus the first and in principle the deadliest of
sins. The span of human life is infinitely short and precious to
make sure of one’s own election. Loss of time through sociabil-
ity, idle talk,
10
luxury,
11
even more sleep than is necessary for
health,
12
six to at most eight hours, is worthy of absolute moral
condemnation.
13
It does not yet hold, with Franklin, that time is
money, but the proposition is true in a certain spiritual sense. It
is infinitely valuable because every hour lost is lost to labour for
the glory of God.
14
Thus inactive contemplation is also valueless,
or even directly reprehensible if it is at the expense of one’s daily
work.
15
For it is less pleasing to God than the active performance
of His will in a calling.
16
Besides, Sunday is provided for that,
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
104
and, according to Baxter, it is always those who are not diligent
in their callings who have no time for God when the occasion
demands it.
17
Accordingly, Baxter’s principal work is dominated by the con-
tinually repeated, often almost passionate preaching of hard,
continuous bodily or mental labour.
18
It is due to a combination
of two different motives.
19
Labour is, on the one hand, an
approved ascetic technique, as it always has been
20
in the West-
ern Church, in sharp contrast not only to the Orient but to
almost all monastic rules the world over.
21
It is in particular the
specific defence against all those temptations which Puritanism
united under the name of the unclean life, whose rôle for it was
by no means small. The sexual asceticism of Puritanism differs
only in degree, not in fundamental principle, from that of
monasticism; and on account of the Puritan conception of mar-
riage, its practical influence is more far-reaching than that of the
latter. For sexual intercourse is permitted, even within marriage,
only as the means willed by God for the increase of His glory
according to the commandment, “Be fruitful and multiply.”
22
Along with a moderate vegetable diet and cold baths, the same
prescription is given for all sexual temptations as is used against
religious doubts and a sense of moral unworthiness: “Work hard
in your calling.”
23
But the most important thing was that even
beyond that labour came to be considered in itself
24
the end of
life, ordained as such by God. St. Paul’s “He who will not work
shall not eat” holds unconditionally for everyone.
25
Unwilling-
ness to work is symptomatic of the lack of grace.
26
Here the difference from the mediæval view-point becomes
quite evident. Thomas Aquinas also gave an interpretation of that
statement of St. Paul. But for him
27
labour is only necessary
naturali ratione for the maintenance of individual and community.
Where this end is achieved, the precept ceases to have any mean-
ing. Moreover, it holds only for the race, not for every individual.
It does not apply to anyone who can live without labour on his
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
105
possessions, and of course contemplation, as a spiritual form of
action in the Kingdom of God, takes precedence over the com-
mandment in its literal sense. Moreover, for the popular the-
ology of the time, the highest form of monastic productivity lay
in the increase of the Thesaurus ecclesiæ through prayer and chant.
Now only do these exceptions to the duty to labour naturally
no longer hold for Baxter, but he holds most emphatically that
wealth does not exempt anyone from the unconditional com-
mand.
28
Even the wealthy shall not eat without working, for even
though they do not need to labour to support their own needs,
there is God’s commandment which they, like the poor, must
obey.
29
For everyone without exception God’s Providence has
prepared a calling, which he should profess and in which he
should labour. And this calling is not, as it was for the
Lutheran,
30
a fate to which he must submit and which he must
make the best of, but God’s commandment to the individual to
work for the divine glory. This seemingly subtle difference had
far-reaching psychological consequences, and became con-
nected with a further development of the providential interpret-
ation of the economic order which had begun in scholasticism.
The phenomenon of the division of labour and occupations
in society had, among others, been interpreted by Thomas
Aquinas, to whom we may most conveniently refer, as a direct
consequence of the divine scheme of things. But the places
assigned to each man in this cosmos follow ex causis naturalibus and
are fortuitous (contingent in the Scholastic terminology). The
differentiation of men into the classes and occupations estab-
lished through historical development became for Luther, as we
have seen, a direct result of the divine will. The perseverance of
the individual in the place and within the limits which God
had assigned to him was a religious duty.
31
This was the more
certainly the consequence since the relations of Lutheranism to
the world were in general uncertain from the beginning and
remained so. Ethical principles for the reform of the world could
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
106
not be found in Luther’s realm of ideas; in fact it never quite
freed itself from Pauline indifference. Hence the world had to be
accepted as it was, and this alone could be made a religious duty.
But in the Puritan view, the providential character of the play
of private economic interests takes on a somewhat different
emphasis. True to the Puritan tendency to pragmatic interpret-
ations, the providential purpose of the division of labour is to be
known by its fruits. On this point Baxter expresses himself in
terms which more than once directly recall Adam Smith’s well-
known apotheosis of the division of labour.
32
The specialization
of occupations leads, since it makes the development of skill
possible, to a quantitative and qualitative improvement in pro-
duction, and thus serves the common good, which is identical
with the good of the greatest possible number. So far, the motiv-
ation is purely utilitarian, and is closely related to the customary
view-point of much of the secular literature of the time.
33
But the characteristic Puritan element appears when Baxter
sets at the head of his discussion the statement that “outside of a
well-marked calling the accomplishments of a man are only cas-
ual and irregular, and he spends more time in idleness than at
work”, and when he concludes it as follows: “and he [the
specialized worker] will carry out his work in order while
another remains in constant confusion, and his business knows
neither time nor place
34
. . . therefore is a certain calling the best
for everyone”. Irregular work, which the ordinary labourer is
often forced to accept, is often unavoidable, but always an
unwelcome state of transition. A man without a calling thus
lacks the systematic, methodical character which is, as we have
seen, demanded by worldly asceticism.
The Quaker ethic also holds that a man’s life in his calling is
an exercise in ascetic virtue, a proof of his state of grace through
his conscientiousness, which is expressed in the care
35
and
method with which he pursues his calling. What God demands
is not labour in itself, but rational labour in a calling. In the
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
107
Puritan concept of the calling the emphasis is always placed on
this methodical character of worldly asceticism, not, as with
Luther, on the acceptance of the lot which God has irretrievably
assigned to man.
36
Hence the question whether anyone may combine several call-
ings is answered in the affirmative, if it is useful for the common
good or one’s own,
37
and not injurious to anyone, and if it does
not lead to unfaithfulness in one of the callings. Even a change of
calling is by no means regarded as objectionable, if it is not
thoughtless and is made for the purpose of pursuing a calling
more pleasing to God,
38
which means, on general principles,
one more useful.
It is true that the usefulness of a calling, and thus its favour in
the sight of God, is measured primarily in moral terms, and thus
in terms of the importance of the goods produced in it for the
community. But a further, and, above all, in practice the most
important, criterion is found in private profitableness.
39
For if
that God, whose hand the Puritan sees in all the occurrences of
life, shows one of His elect a chance of profit, he must do it with
a purpose. Hence the faithful Christian must follow the call by
taking advantage of the opportunity.
40
“If God show you a way
in which you may lawfully get more than in another way (with-
out wrong to your soul or to any other), if you refuse this, and
choose the less gainful way, you cross one of the ends of your
calling, and you refuse to be God’s steward, and to accept His
gifts and use them for Him when He requireth it: you may
labour to be rich for God, though not for the flesh and sin.”
41
Wealth is thus bad ethically only in so far as it is a temptation
to idleness and sinful enjoyment of life, and its acquisition is bad
only when it is with the purpose of later living merrily and
without care. But as a performance of duty in a calling it is not
only morally permissible, but actually enjoined.
42
The parable of
the servant who was rejected because he did not increase the
talent which was entrusted to him seemed to say so directly.
43
To
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
108
wish to be poor was, it was often argued, the same as wishing to
be unhealthy;
44
it is objectionable as a glorification of works and
derogatory to the glory of God. Especially begging, on the part
of one able to work, is not only the sin of slothfulness, but a
violation of the duty of brotherly love according to the Apostle’s
own word.
45
The emphasis on the ascetic importance of a fixed calling
provided an ethical justification of the modern specialized div-
ision of labour. In a similar way the providential interpretation of
profit-making justified the activities of the business man.
46
The
superior indulgence of the seigneur and the parvenu ostentation of
the nouveau riche are equally detestable to asceticism. But, on the
other hand, it has the highest ethical appreciation of the sober,
middle-class, self-made man.
47
“God blesseth His trade” is a
stock remark about those good men
48
who had successfully fol-
lowed the divine hints. The whole power of the God of the Old
Testament, who rewards His people for their obedience in this
life,
49
necessarily exercised a similar influence on the Puritan
who, following Baxter’s advice, compared his own state of grace
with that of the heroes of the Bible,
50
and in the process inter-
preted the statements of the Scriptures as the articles of a book of
statutes.
Of course, the words of the Old Testament were not entirely
without ambiguity. We have seen that Luther first used the con-
cept of the calling in the secular sense in translating a passage
from Jesus Sirach. But the book of Jesus Sirach belongs, with the
whole atmosphere expressed in it, to those parts of the broad-
ened Old Testament with a distinctly traditionalistic tendency, in
spite of Hellenistic influences. It is characteristic that down to
the present day this book seems to enjoy a special favour among
Lutheran German peasants,
51
just as the Lutheran influence
in large sections of German Pietism has been expressed by a
preference for Jesus Sirach.
52
The Puritans repudiated the Apocrypha as not inspired,
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
109
consistently with their sharp distinction between things divine
and things of the flesh.
53
But among the canonical books that of
Job had all the more influence. On the one hand it contained a
grand conception of the absolute sovereign majesty of God,
beyond all human comprehension, which was closely related to
that of Calvinism. With that, on the other hand, it combined the
certainty which, though incidental for Calvin, came to be of
great importance for Puritanism, that God would bless His own
in this life—in the book of Job only—and also in the material
sense.
54
The Oriental quietism, which appears in several of the
fi
nest verses of the Psalms and in the Proverbs, was interpreted
away, just as Baxter did with the traditionalistic tinge of the
passage in the 1st Epistle to the Corinthians, so important for
the idea of the calling.
But all the more emphasis was placed on those parts of the
Old Testament which praise formal legality as a sign of conduct
pleasing to God. They held the theory that the Mosaic Law had
only lost its validity through Christ in so far as it contained
ceremonial or purely historical precepts applying only to the
Jewish people, but that otherwise it had always been valid as an
expression of the natural law, and must hence be retained.
55
This
made it possible, on the one hand, to eliminate elements which
could not be reconciled with modern life. But still, through its
numerous related features, Old Testament morality was able to
give a powerful impetus to that spirit of self-righteous and sober
legality which was so characteristic of the worldly asceticism of
this form of Protestantism.
56
Thus when authors, as was the case with several contemporar-
ies as well as later writers, characterize the basic ethical tendency
of Puritanism, especially in England, as English Hebraism
57
they
are, correctly understood, not wrong. It is necessary, however,
not to think of Palestinian Judaism at the time of the writing of
the Scriptures, but of Judaism as it became under the influence
of many centuries of formalistic, legalistic, and Talmudic
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
110
education. Even then one must be very careful in drawing paral-
lels. The general tendency of the older Judaism toward a naïve
acceptance of life as such was far removed from the special
characteristics of Puritanism. It was, however, just as far—and
this ought not to be overlooked—from the economic ethics of
mediæval and modern Judaism, in the traits which determined
the positions of both in the development of the capitalistic ethos.
The Jews stood on the side of the politically and speculatively
oriented adventurous capitalism; their ethos was, in a word, that
of pariah-capitalism. But Puritanism carried the ethos of the
rational organization of capital and labour. It took over from the
Jewish ethic only what was adapted to this purpose.
To analyse the effects on the character of peoples of the pene-
tration of life with Old Testament norms—a tempting task
which, however, has not yet satisfactorily been done even for
Judaism
58
—would be impossible within the limits of this sketch.
In addition to the relationships already pointed out, it is import-
ant for the general inner attitude of the Puritans, above all, that
the belief that they were God’s chosen people saw in them a
great renaissance.
59
Even the kindly Baxter thanked God that he
was born in England, and thus in the true Church, and nowhere
else. This thankfulness for one’s own perfection by the grace of
God penetrated the attitude toward life
60
of the Puritan middle
class, and played its part in developing that formalistic, hard,
correct character which was peculiar to the men of that heroic
age of capitalism.
Let us now try to clarify the points in which the Puritan idea
of the calling and the premium it placed upon ascetic conduct
was bound directly to influence the development of a capitalistic
way of life. As we have seen, this asceticism turned with all its
force against one thing: the spontaneous enjoyment of life and
all it had to offer. This is perhaps most characteristically brought
out in the struggle over the Book of Sports
61
which James I and
Charles I made into law expressly as a means of counteracting
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
111
Puritanism, and which the latter ordered to be read from all the
pulpits. The fanatical opposition of the Puritans to the ordin-
ances of the King, permitting certain popular amusements on
Sunday outside of Church hours by law, was not only explained
by the disturbance of the Sabbath rest, but also by resentment
against the intentional diversion from the ordered life of the
saint, which it caused. And, on his side, the King’s threats
of severe punishment for every attack on the legality of those
sports were motivated by his purpose of breaking the anti-
authoritarian ascetic tendency of Puritanism, which was so dan-
gerous to the State. The feudal and monarchical forces protected
the pleasure seekers against the rising middle-class morality and
the anti-authoritarian ascetic conventicles, just as to-day capital-
istic society tends to protect those willing to work against the
class morality of the proletariat and the anti-authoritarian trade
union.
As against this the Puritans upheld their decisive character-
istic, the principle of ascetic conduct. For otherwise the Puritan
aversion to sport, even for the Quakers, was by no means simply
one of principle. Sport was accepted if it served a rational pur-
pose, that of recreation necessary for physical efficiency. But as a
means for the spontaneous expression of undisciplined
impulses, it was under suspicion; and in so far as it became
purely a means of enjoyment, or awakened pride, raw instincts
or the irrational gambling instinct, it was of course strictly con-
demned. Impulsive enjoyment of life, which leads away both
from work in a calling and from religion, was as such the enemy
of rational asceticism, whether in the form of seigneurial sports,
or the enjoyment of the dance-hall or the public-house of the
common man.
62
Its attitude was thus suspicious and often hostile to the aspects
of culture without any immediate religious value. It is not, how-
ever, true that the ideals of Puritanism implied a solemn,
narrow-minded contempt of culture. Quite the contrary is the
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
112
case at least for science, with the exception of the hatred of
Scholasticism. Moreover, the great men of the Puritan movement
were thoroughly steeped in the culture of the Renaissance. The
sermons of the Presbyterian divines abound with classical allu-
sions,
63
and even the Radicals, although they objected to it, were
not ashamed to display that kind of learning in theological
polemics. Perhaps no country was ever so full of graduates as
New England in the first generation of its existence. The satire of
their opponents, such as, for instance, Butler’s Hudibras, also
attacks primarily the pedantry and highly trained dialectics of
the Puritans. This is partially due to the religious valuation of
knowledge which followed from their attitude to the Catholic
fi
des implicita.
But the situation is quite different when one looks at non-
scientific literature,
64
and especially the fine arts. Here asceticism
descended like a frost on the life of “merrie old England”. And
not only worldly merriment felt its effect. The Puritan’s fer-
ocious hatred of everything which smacked of superstition, of
all survivals of magical or sacramental salvation, applied to the
Christmas festivities and the May Pole
65
and all spontaneous
religious art. That there was room in Holland for a great, often
uncouthly realistic art
66
proves only how far from completely the
authoritarian moral discipline of that country was able to coun-
teract the influence of the court and the regents (a class of
rentiers), and also the joy in life of the parvenu bourgeoisie, after
the short supremacy of the Calvinistic theocracy had been trans-
formed into a moderate national Church, and with it Calvinism
had perceptibly lost in its power of ascetic influence.
67
The theatre was obnoxious to the Puritans,
68
and with the
strict exclusion of the erotic and of nudity from the realm of
toleration, a radical view of either literature or art could not
exist. The conceptions of idle talk, of superfluities,
69
and of vain
ostentation, all designations of an irrational attitude without
objective purpose, thus not ascetic, and especially not serving
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
113
the glory of God, but of man, were always at hand to serve in
deciding in favour of sober utility as against any artistic tenden-
cies. This was especially true in the case of decoration of the
person, for instance clothing.
70
That powerful tendency toward
uniformity of life, which to-day so immensely aids the capital-
istic interest in the standardization of production,
71
had its ideal
foundations in the repudiation of all idolatry of the flesh.
72
Of course we must not forget that Puritanism included a
world of contradictions, and that the instinctive sense of eternal
greatness in art was certainly stronger among its leaders than in
the atmosphere of the Cavaliers.
73
Moreover, a unique genius like
Rembrandt, however little his conduct may have been acceptable
to God in the eyes of the Puritans, was very strongly influenced
in the character of his work by his religious environment.
74
But
that does not alter the picture as a whole. In so far as the devel-
opment of the Puritan tradition could, and in part did, lead to a
powerful spiritualization of personality, it was a decided benefit
to literature. But for the most part that benefit only accrued to
later generations.
Although we cannot here enter upon a discussion of the influ-
ence of Puritanism in all these directions, we should call atten-
tion to the fact that the toleration of pleasure in cultural goods,
which contributed to purely æsthetic or athletic enjoyment, cer-
tainly always ran up against one characteristic limitation: they
must not cost anything. Man is only a trustee of the goods which
have come to him through God’s grace. He must, like the servant
in the parable, give an account of every penny entrusted to
him,
75
and it is at least hazardous to spend any of it for a purpose
which does not serve the glory of God but only one’s own
enjoyment.
76
What person, who keeps his eyes open, has not
met representatives of this view-point even in the present?
77
The
idea of a man’s duty to his possessions, to which he subordin-
ates himself as an obedient steward, or even as an acquisitive
machine, bears with chilling weight on his life. The greater the
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
114
possessions the heavier, if the ascetic attitude toward life stands
the test, the feeling of responsibility for them, for holding them
undiminished for the glory of God and increasing them by rest-
less effort. The origin of this type of life also extends in certain
roots, like so many aspects of the spirit of capitalism, back into
the Middle Ages.
78
But it was in the ethic of ascetic Protestantism
that it first found a consistent ethical foundation. Its significance
for the development of capitalism is obvious.
79
This worldly Protestant asceticism, as we may recapitulate up
to this point, acted powerfully against the spontaneous enjoy-
ment of possessions; it restricted consumption, especially of
luxuries. On the other hand, it had the psychological effect of
freeing the acquisition of goods from the inhibitions of trad-
itionalistic ethics. It broke the bonds of the impulse of acquisi-
tion in that it not only legalized it, but (in the sense discussed)
looked upon it as directly willed by God. The campaign against
the temptations of the flesh, and the dependence on external
things, was, as besides the Puritans the great Quaker apologist
Barclay expressly says, not a struggle against the rational acquisi-
tion, but against the irrational use of wealth.
But this irrational use was exemplified in the outward forms
of luxury which their code condemned as idolatry of the flesh,
80
however natural they had appeared to the feudal mind. On the
other hand, they approved the rational and utilitarian uses of
wealth which were willed by God for the needs of the individual
and the community. They did not wish to impose mortifica-
tion
81
on the man of wealth, but the use of his means for neces-
sary and practical things. The idea of comfort characteristically
limits the extent of ethically permissible expenditures. It is nat-
urally no accident that the development of a manner of living
consistent with that idea may be observed earliest and most
clearly among the most consistent representatives of this whole
attitude toward life. Over against the glitter and ostentation of
feudal magnificence which, resting on an unsound economic
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
115
basis, prefers a sordid elegance to a sober simplicity, they set the
clean and solid comfort of the middle-class home as an ideal.
82
On the side of the production of private wealth, asceticism
condemned both dishonesty and impulsive avarice. What was
condemned as covetousness, Mammonism, etc., was the pursuit
of riches for their own sake. For wealth in itself was a tempta-
tion. But here asceticism was the power “which ever seeks the
good but ever creates evil”;
83
what was evil in its sense was
possession and its temptations. For, in conformity with the Old
Testament and in analogy to the ethical valuation of good works,
asceticism looked upon the pursuit of wealth as an end in itself
as highly reprehensible; but the attainment of it as a fruit of
labour in a calling was a sign of God’s blessing. And even more
important: the religious valuation of restless, continuous, sys-
tematic work in a worldly calling, as the highest means to asceti-
cism, and at the same time the surest and most evident proof of
rebirth and genuine faith, must have been the most powerful
conceivable lever for the expansion of that attitude toward life
which we have here called the spirit of capitalism.
84
When the limitation of consumption is combined with this
release of acquisitive activity, the inevitable practical result is
obvious: accumulation of capital through ascetic compulsion to
save.
85
The restraints which were imposed upon the consump-
tion of wealth naturally served to increase it by making possible
the productive investment of capital. How strong this influence
was is not, unfortunately, susceptible of exact statistical demon-
stration. In New England the connection is so evident that it did
not escape the eye of so discerning a historian as Doyle.
86
But
also in Holland, which was really only dominated by strict Cal-
vinism for seven years, the greater simplicity of life in the more
seriously religious circles, in combination with great wealth, led
to an excessive propensity to accumulation.
87
That, furthermore, the tendency which has existed every-
where and at all times, being quite strong in Germany to-day, for
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
116
middle-class fortunes to be absorbed into the nobility, was
necessarily checked by the Puritan antipathy to the feudal way of
life, is evident. English Mercantilist writers of the seventeenth
century attributed the superiority of Dutch capital to English to
the circumstance that newly acquired wealth there did not regu-
larly seek investment in land. Also, since it is not simply a ques-
tion of the purchase of land, it did not there seek to transfer itself
to feudal habits of life, and thereby to remove itself from the
possibility of capitalistic investment.
88
The high esteem for agri-
culture as a peculiarly important branch of activity, also espe-
cially consistent with piety, which the Puritans shared, applied
(for instance in Baxter) not to the landlord, but to the yeoman
and farmer, in the eighteenth century not to the squire, but the
rational cultivator.
89
Through the whole of English society in the
time since the seventeenth century goes the conflict between
the squirearchy, the representatives of “merrie old England”,
and the Puritan circles of widely varying social influence.
90
Both
elements, that of an unspoiled naïve joy of life, and of a strictly
regulated, reserved self-control, and conventional ethical con-
duct are even to-day combined to form the English national
character.
91
Similarly, the early history of the North American
Colonies is dominated by the sharp contrast of the adventurers,
who wanted to set up plantations with the labour of indentured
servants, and live as feudal lords, and the specifically middle-
class outlook of the Puritans.
92
As far as the influence of the Puritan outlook extended, under
all circumstances—and this is, of course, much more important
than the mere encouragement of capital accumulation—it
favoured the development of a rational bourgeois economic life;
it was the most important, and above all the only consistent
influence in the development of that life. It stood at the cradle of
the modern economic man.
To be sure, these Puritanical ideals tended to give way under
excessive pressure from the temptations of wealth, as the
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
117
Puritans themselves knew very well. With great regularity we
fi
nd the most genuine adherents of Puritanism among the classes
which were rising from a lowly status,
93
the small bourgeois and
farmers, while the beati possidentes, even among Quakers, are often
found tending to repudiate the old ideals.
94
It was the same fate
which again and again befell the predecessor of this worldly
asceticism, the monastic asceticism of the Middle Ages. In the
latter case, when rational economic activity had worked out its
full effects by strict regulation of conduct and limitation of con-
sumption, the wealth accumulated either succumbed directly to
the nobility, as in the time before the Reformation, or monastic
discipline threatened to break down, and one of the numerous
reformations became necessary.
In fact the whole history of monasticism is in a certain sense
the history of a continual struggle with the problem of the secu-
larizing influence of wealth. The same is true on a grand scale of
the worldly asceticism of Puritanism. The great revival of Meth-
odism, which preceded the expansion of English industry
toward the end of the eighteenth century, may well be compared
with such a monastic reform. We may hence quote here a pas-
sage
95
from John Wesley himself which might well serve as a
motto for everything which has been said above. For it shows
that the leaders of these ascetic movements understood the
seemingly paradoxical relationships which we have here ana-
lysed perfectly well, and in the same sense that we have given
them.
96
He wrote:
I fear, wherever riches have increased, the essence of religion
has decreased in the same proportion. Therefore I do not see
how it is possible, in the nature of things, for any revival of true
religion to continue long. For religion must necessarily produce
both industry and frugality, and these cannot but produce
riches. But as riches increase, so will pride, anger, and love of
the world in all its branches. How then is it possible that
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
118
Methodism, that is, a religion of the heart, though it flourishes
now as a green bay tree, should continue in this state? For the
Methodists in every place grow diligent and frugal; con-
sequently they increase in goods. Hence they proportionately
increase in pride, in anger, in the desire of the flesh, the desire
of the eyes, and the pride of life. So, although the form of
religion remains, the spirit is swiftly vanishing away. Is there no
way to prevent this—this continual decay of pure religion? We
ought not to prevent people from being diligent and frugal; we
must exhort all Christians to gain all they can, and to save all they
can; that is, in effect, to grow rich.
97
There follows the advice that those who gain all they can and
save all they can should also give all they can, so that they will
grow in grace and lay up a treasure in heaven. It is clear that
Wesley here expresses, even in detail, just what we have been
trying to point out.
98
As Wesley here says, the full economic effect of those great
religious movements, whose significance for economic devel-
opment lay above all in their ascetic educative influence, gener-
ally came only after the peak of the purely religious enthusiasm
was past. Then the intensity of the search for the Kingdom of
God commenced gradually to pass over into sober economic
virtue; the religious roots died out slowly, giving way to utilitar-
ian worldliness. Then, as Dowden puts it, as in Robinson Crusoe, the
isolated economic man who carries on missionary activities on
the side
99
takes the place of the lonely spiritual search for the
Kingdom of Heaven of Bunyan’s pilgrim, hurrying through the
market-place of Vanity.
When later the principle “to make the most of both worlds”
became dominant in the end, as Dowden has remarked, a good
conscience simply became one of the means of enjoying a com-
fortable bourgeois life, as is well expressed in the German prov-
erb about the soft pillow. What the great religious epoch of the
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
119
seventeenth century bequeathed to its utilitarian successor
was, however, above all an amazingly good, we may even say a
pharisaically good, conscience in the acquisition of money, so
long as it took place legally. Every trace of the deplacere vix potest has
disappeared.
100
A specifically bourgeois economic ethic had grown up. With
the consciousness of standing in the fullness of God’s grace
and being visibly blessed by Him, the bourgeois business man,
as long as he remained within the bounds of formal correctness,
as long as his moral conduct was spotless and the use to which he
put his wealth was not objectionable, could follow his pecuniary
interests as he would and feel that he was fulfilling a duty in doing
so. The power of religious asceticism provided him in addition
with sober, conscientious, and unusually industrious workmen,
who clung to their work as to a life purpose willed by God.
101
Finally, it gave him the comforting assurance that the unequal
distribution of the goods of this world was a special dispensation
of Divine Providence, which in these differences, as in particular
grace, pursued secret ends unknown to men.
102
Calvin himself
had made the much-quoted statement that only when the
people, i.e. the mass of labourers and craftsmen, were poor did
they remain obedient to God.
103
In the Netherlands (Pieter de la
Court and others), that had been secularized to the effect that the
mass of men only labour when necessity forces them to do so.
This formulation of a leading idea of capitalistic economy later
entered into the current theories of the productivity of low
wages. Here also, with the dying out of the religious root, the
utilitarian interpretation crept in unnoticed, in the line of
development which we have again and again observed.
Mediæval ethics not only tolerated begging but actually glori-
fi
ed it in the mendicant orders. Even secular beggars, since they
gave the person of means opportunity for good works through
giving alms, were sometimes considered an estate and treated as
such. Even the Anglican social ethic of the Stuarts was very close
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
120
to this attitude. It remained for Puritan Asceticism to take part in
the severe English Poor Relief Legislation which fundamentally
changed the situation. And it could do that, because the Protest-
ant sects and the strict Puritan communities actually did not
know any begging in their own midst.
104
On the other hand, seen from the side of the workers, the
Zinzendorf branch of Pietism, for instance, glorified the loyal
worker who did not seek acquisition, but lived according to the
apostolic model, and was thus endowed with the charisma
105
of
the disciples.
106
Similar ideas had originally been prevalent
among the Baptists in an even more radical form.
Now naturally the whole ascetic literature of almost all
denominations is saturated with the idea that faithful labour,
even at low wages, on the part of those whom life offers no other
opportunities, is highly pleasing to God. In this respect Protest-
ant Asceticism added in itself nothing new. But it not only deep-
ened this idea most powerfully, it also created the force which
was alone decisive for its effectiveness: the psychological sanc-
tion of it through the conception of this labour as a calling, as
the best, often in the last analysis the only means of attaining
certainty of grace.
107
And on the other hand it legalized the
exploitation of this specific willingness to work, in that it also
interpreted the employer’s business activity as a calling.
108
It is
obvious how powerfully the exclusive search for the Kingdom of
God only through the fulfilment of duty in the calling, and the
strict asceticism which Church discipline naturally imposed,
especially on the propertyless classes, was bound to affect
the productivity of labour in the capitalistic sense of the word.
The treatment of labour as a calling became as characteristic of
the modern worker as the corresponding attitude toward acqui-
sition of the business man. It was a perception of this situation,
new at his time, which caused so able an observer as Sir William
Petty to attribute the economic power of Holland in the seven-
teenth century to the fact that the very numerous dissenters in
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
121
that country (Calvinists and Baptists) “are for the most part
thinking, sober men, and such as believe that Labour and Indus-
try is their duty towards God”.
109
Calvinism opposed organic social organization in the fiscal-
monopolistic form which it assumed in Anglicanism under the
Stuarts, especially in the conceptions of Laud, this alliance of
Church and State with the monopolists on the basis of a
Christian-social ethical foundation. Its leaders were universally
among the most passionate opponents of this type of politically
privileged commercial, putting-out, and colonial capitalism.
Over against it they placed the individualistic motives of rational
legal acquisition by virtue of one’s own ability and initiative.
And, while the politically privileged monopoly industries in
England all disappeared in short order, this attitude played a large
and decisive part in the development of the industries which
grew up in spite of and against the authority of the State.
110
The
Puritans (Prynne, Parker) repudiated all connection with the
large-scale capitalistic courtiers and projectors as an ethically
suspicious class. On the other hand, they took pride in their own
superior middle-class business morality, which formed the true
reason for the persecutions to which they were subjected on the
part of those circles. Defoe proposed to win the battle against
dissent by boycotting bank credit and withdrawing deposits. The
difference of the two types of capitalistic attitude went to a very
large extent hand in hand with religious differences. The
opponents of the Nonconformists, even in the eighteenth cen-
tury, again and again ridiculed them for personifying the spirit
of shopkeepers, and for having ruined the ideals of old England.
Here also lay the difference of the Puritan economic ethic from
the Jewish; and contemporaries (Prynne) knew well that the
former and not the latter was the bourgeois capitalistic ethic.
111
One of the fundamental elements of the spirit of modern
capitalism, and not only of that but of all modern culture:
rational conduct on the basis of the idea of the calling, was
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
122
born—that is what this discussion has sought to demonstrate—
from the spirit of Christian asceticism. One has only to re-read
the passage from Franklin, quoted at the beginning of this essay,
in order to see that the essential elements of the attitude which
was there called the spirit of capitalism are the same as what we
have just shown to be the content of the Puritan worldly asceti-
cism,
112
only without the religious basis, which by Franklin’s
time had died away. The idea that modern labour has an ascetic
character is of course not new. Limitation to specialized work,
with a renunciation of the Faustian universality of man which it
involves, is a condition of any valuable work in the modern
world; hence deeds and renunciation inevitably condition each
other to-day. This fundamentally ascetic trait of middle-class life,
if it attempts to be a way of life at all, and not simply the absence
of any, was what Goethe wanted to teach, at the height of his
wisdom, in the Wanderjahren, and in the end which he gave to the
life of his Faust.
113
For him the realization meant a renunciation, a
departure from an age of full and beautiful humanity, which can
no more be repeated in the course of our cultural development
than can the flower of the Athenian culture of antiquity.
The Puritan wanted to work in a calling; we are forced to do
so. For when asceticism was carried out of monastic cells into
everyday life, and began to dominate worldly morality, it did its
part in building the tremendous cosmos of the modern eco-
nomic order. This order is now bound to the technical and
economic conditions of machine production which to-day
determine the lives of all the individuals who are born into this
mechanism, not only those directly concerned with economic
acquisition, with irresistible force. Perhaps it will so determine
them until the last ton of fossilized coal is burnt. In Baxter’s view
the care for external goods should only lie on the shoulders of
the “saint like a light cloak, which can be thrown aside at any
moment”.
114
But fate decreed that the cloak should become an
iron cage.
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
123
Since asceticism undertook to remodel the world and to work
out its ideals in the world, material goods have gained an
increasing and finally an inexorable power over the lives of men
as at no previous period in history. To-day the spirit of religious
asceticism—whether finally, who knows?—has escaped from
the cage. But victorious capitalism, since it rests on mechanical
foundations, needs its support no longer. The rosy blush of its
laughing heir, the Enlightenment, seems also to be irretrievably
fading, and the idea of duty in one’s calling prowls about in our
lives like the ghost of dead religious beliefs. Where the fulfil-
ment of the calling cannot directly be related to the highest
spiritual and cultural values, or when, on the other hand, it need
not be felt simply as economic compulsion, the individual gen-
erally abandons the attempt to justify it at all. In the field of its
highest development, in the United States, the pursuit of wealth,
stripped of its religious and ethical meaning, tends to become
associated with purely mundane passions, which often actually
give it the character of sport.
115
No one knows who will live in this cage in the future, or
whether at the end of this tremendous development entirely new
prophets will arise, or there will be a great rebirth of old ideas
and ideals, or, if neither, mechanized petrification, embellished
with a sort of convulsive self-importance. For of the last stage of
this cultural development, it might well be truly said: “Special-
ists without spirit, sensualists without heart; this nullity
imagines that it has attained a level of civilization never before
achieved.”
But this brings us to the world of judgments of value and of
faith, with which this purely historical discussion need not be
burdened. The next task would be rather to show the signifi-
cance of ascetic rationalism, which has only been touched in the
foregoing sketch, for the content of practical social ethics, thus
for the types of organization and the functions of social groups
from the conventicle to the State. Then its relations to humanistic
the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism
124
rationalism,
116
its ideals of life and cultural influence; further to
the development of philosophical and scientific empiricism, to
technical development and to spiritual ideals would have to be
analysed. Then its historical development from the mediæval
beginnings of worldly asceticism to its dissolution into pure
utilitarianism would have to be traced out through all the areas
of ascetic religion. Only then could the quantitative cultural
significance of ascetic Protestantism in its relation to the other
plastic elements of modern culture be estimated.
Here we have only attempted to trace the fact and the direc-
tion of its influence to their motives in one, though a very
important point. But it would also further be necessary to
investigate how Protestant Asceticism was in turn influenced in
its development and its character by the totality of social condi-
tions, especially economic.
117
The modern man is in general,
even with the best will, unable to give religious ideas a signifi-
cance for culture and national character which they deserve. But
it is, of course, not my aim to substitute for a one-sided material-
istic an equally one-sided spiritualistic causal interpretation of
culture and of history. Each is equally possible,
118
but each, if it
does not serve as the preparation, but as the conclusion of an
investigation, accomplishes equally little in the interest of
historical truth.
119
asceticism and the spirit of capitalism
125
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