diminishes as children enter puberty, and it may not occur at all in some older
adults. Thus, phenomena such as night terrors, bed wetting, and sleep walking tend
to occur mainly during slow-wave sleep in children but disappear as the children
become older and spend less time in those sleep stages. Most sedative drugs are
GABA
A
receptor agonists that acutely increase the amount of time spent in the
lighter stages of NREM sleep, but there may be little time spent in stages III or IV
of NREM or in REM sleep. These drugs are thought to act directly on the arousal
system, inhibiting the firing of its neurons. Newer drugs such as gaboxadol, which
acts on a specific class of GABA
A
receptors containing delta subunits, may allow
activation of the endogenous sleep system of the brain, and produce a pattern of
sleep including more deep slow waves and more REM sleep.
Box 1–3 Wake-Sleep States (cont.)
18
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
cholinergic and noncholinergic neurons in the
magnocellular basal forebrain nuclei.
76
These
large cholinergic neurons receive afferents from
virtually all of the hypothalamic and monoamin-
ergic brainstem ascending systems and accom-
pany them to diffusely innervate the cerebral
cortex.
77,78
However, the pattern of termination
of the cholinergic neurons is more specific than
the monoamine inputs to the cortex. Whereas
axons from individual monoaminergic neurons
typically ramify widely in the cerebral cortex,
axons from basal forebrain cholinergic neurons
each innervate a patch of cortex of only a few
millimeters in diameter.
42,54
Recordings from
basal forebrain neurons in rats across the wake-
sleep cycle indicate that they have a wide range
of activity patterns. Many are most active dur-
ing wakefulness or during slow-wave sleep, and
they fire in bursts that correlate with EEG wave
patterns.
79
Interestingly, in behaving monkeys,
basal forebrain neuron firing correlates best
with the reward phase of complex behaviors,
suggesting that these neurons may be involved
in some highly specific aspect of arousal, such as
focusing attention on rewarding tasks, rather
than in the general level of cortical activity.
80,81
Thus, the ascending arousal system consists
of multiple ascending pathways originating in
the mesopontine tegmentum, but augmented
by additional inputs at virtually every level
through which it passes on its way to the basal
forebrain, thalamus, and cerebral cortex. These
Figure 1–2. A summary diagram of the ascending arousal system. The cholinergic system, shown in yellow, provides the
main input to the relay and reticular nuclei of the thalamus from the upper brainstem. This inhibits the reticular nucleus and
activates the thalamic relay nuclei, putting them into transmission mode for relaying sensory information to the cerebral
cortex. The cortex is activated simultaneously by a series of direct inputs, shown in red. These include monoaminergic inputs
from the upper brainstem and posterior hypothalamus, such as noradrenaline (NA) from the locus coeruleus (LC), sero-
tonin (5-HT) from the dorsal and median raphe nuclei, dopamine (DA) from the ventral periaqueductal gray matter (vPAG),
and histamine (His) from the tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN); peptidergic inputs from the hypothalamus such as orexin
(ORX) and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) both from the lateral hypothalamus (LH); and both cholinergic (ACh)
and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic inputs from the basal forebrain (BF). Activation of the brainstem yellow path-
way in the absence of the red pathways occurs during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, resulting in the cortex entering a
dreaming state. LDT, laterodorsal tegmental nuclei; PPT, pedunculopontine. (From Saper, CB, Scammell, TE, Lu J. Hypo-
thalamic regulation of sleep and circadian rhythms. Nature 437:1257–1263, 2005. By permission of Nature Publishing Group.)
Pathophysiology of Signs and Symptoms of Coma
19
Box 1–4 Orexin and Narcolepsy
From its first description by Gelineau in 1880,
66
narcolepsy had puzzled clinicians
and scientists alike. Although Gelineau included within his definition a wide range
of disorders with excessive daytime sleepiness, Gowers has been credited with lim-
iting the term to cases with brief periods of sleep that interrupt a normal waking
state. Kinnier Wilson firmly identified it with attacks of cataplexy, during which
‘‘the patient’s knees give way and he may sink to the ground, without any loss of
consciousness.’’
24
Wilson pointed out that narcolepsy had been considered a very
rare condition of which he had seen only a few cases during the first 20 years of his
practice, but that in the mid-1920s there was a sudden increase in the number of
cases, so that he had seen six within a year in 1927; Spiller reported seeing three
within a year in 1926. Wilson opined that the epidemic of new cases of narcolepsy
in those years was due to the worldwide epidemic of encephalitis from about 1918
to 1925. However, the prevalence of narcolepsy has remained relatively high, with
a current rate of one per 2,000 population, and it has its peak incidence during
the second and third decades of life.
38
Over the years, additional features of narcolepsy were described. About half of
patients reported sleep paralysis, a curious state of inability to move during the
transition from sleep to wakefulness or from wakefulness to sleep.
38
However, up
to 20% of normal individuals may also experience this condition occasionally.
More characteristic of narcolepsy, but occurring in only about 20% of cases, are
episodes of hypnagogic hallucinations, during which the patient experiences a
vivid, cartoon-like hallucination, with movement and action, against a background
of wakefulness. The patient can distinguish that the hallucination is not real. EEG
and EMG recordings during sleep and wakefulness show that narcoleptic patients
fall asleep more frequently during the day, but they also awaken more frequently
at night, so that they get about the same amount of sleep as normal individuals.
However, they often enter into REM sleep very soon after sleep onset (short-onset
REM periods [SOREMPs]), and during cataplexy attacks they show muscle atonia
consistent with intrusion of a REM-like state into consciousness. On a multiple
sleep latency test (MSLT), where the patient lies down in a quiet room five times
during the course of the day at 2-hour intervals, narcoleptics typically fall asleep
much faster than normal individuals (often in less than 5 minutes on repeated oc-
casions) and show SOREMPs, which normal individuals rarely, if ever, experience.
There is a clear genetic predisposition to narcolepsy, as individuals with a first-
degree relative with the disorder are 40 times more likely to develop it them-
selves.
38
However, there are clearly environmental factors involved, even among
monozygotic twins; if one twin develops narcolepsy, the other will develop it only
about 25% of the time. HLA allele DQB1*0602 is found in 88% to 98% of indi-
viduals with narcolepsy with cataplexy, but only in about 12% of white Americans
and 38% of African Americans in the general population.
Scientists worked fruitlessly for decades to unravel the pathophysiology of this
mysterious illness, until in 1999 two dramatic and simultaneous findings suddenly
brought the problem into focus. The previous year, two groups of scientists,
Masashi Yanagisawa and colleagues at the University of Texas Southwestern Med-
ical School, and Greg Sutcliffe and coworkers at the Scripps Institute, had simul-
taneously identified a new pair of peptide neurotransmitters made by neurons in
the lateral hypothalamus, which Yanagisawa called ‘‘orexins’’ (based on the pre-
(continued)
20
sumption of a role in feeding)
67
and Sutcliffe called ‘‘hypocretins’’ (because it was
a hypothalamic peptide with a sequence similar to secretin).
68
Yanagisawa further
showed that the type 1 orexin receptor had 10-fold specificity for orexin A, whereas
the type 2 receptor was activated equally well by both orexins.
69
The orexin neu-
rons in the lateral hypothalamus were found to have wide-ranging projections
from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord, much like the monoaminergic neurons
in the brainstem.
58,70
When Yanagisawa’s group prepared mice in which the orexin gene had been
deleted, they initially found that the animals had normal sleep behavior during the
day.
70
However, when the mice were observed under infrared video monitoring
during the night, they showed intermittent attacks of behavioral arrest during which
they would suddenly fall over onto their side, twitch a bit, and lie still for a minute
or two, before just as suddenly getting up and resuming their normal behaviors.
EEG and EMG recordings demonstrated that these attacks have the appearance
of cataplexy (sudden loss of muscle tone, EEG showing either an awake pattern
or large amounts of theta activity typical of rodents during REM sleep). The
animals also had short-onset REM periods when asleep, another hallmark of
narcolepsy.
At the same time, Emmanuel Mignot had been working at Stanford for nearly a
decade to determine the cause of genetically inherited canine narcolepsy. He fi-
nally determined that the dogs had a genetic defect in the type 2 orexin receptor.
71
112
NORMAL
NARCOLEPTIC
9
15
MB
MB
237
Figure B1–4A. Narcolepsy is caused by loss of the orexin neurons in the posterior and lateral hypo-
thalamus of the human brain. The panels plot the location of orexin neurons in the posterior hypo-
thalamus in two subjects with normal brains on the left and two patients with narcolepsy on the right.
There is typically about 90% loss of orexin neurons in patients who have narcolepsy with cataplexy.
(From Thannickal, TC, Moore, RY, Nienhuis, R, et al. Reduced number of hypocretin neurons in hu-
man narcolepsy. Neuron 27, 469–474, 2000. By permission of Elsevier B.V.)
(continued)
21
different pathways may fire independently un-
der a variety of different conditions, modulating
the functional capacities of cortical neurons dur-
ing a wide range of behavioral states.
Behavioral State Switching
An important feature of the ascending arousal
system is its interconnectivity: the cell groups
that contribute to the system also maintain sub-
stantial connections with other components of
the system. Another important property of the
system is that nearly all of these components
receive inputs from the ventrolateral preoptic
nucleus.
82–84
Ventrolateral preoptic neurons
contain the inhibitory transmitters GABA and
galanin; they fire fastest during sleep.
40,83,85
Le-
sions of the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus cause
a state of profound insomnia in animals,
86,87
and
such lesions undoubtedly accounted for the in-
somniac patients described by von Economo
19
(see Box 1–1).
The ventrolateral preoptic neurons also re-
ceive extensive inhibitory inputs from many
components of the ascending arousal system.
This mutual inhibition between the ventrolat-
eral preoptic nucleus and the ascending arousal
system has interesting implications for the mech-
anisms of the natural switching from wakeful-
ness to sleep over the course of the day, and
from slow-wave to REM sleep over the course
of the night. Electrical engineers call a circuit in
which the two sides inhibit each other a ‘‘flip-
flop’’ switch.
84
Each side of a flip-flop circuit is
self-reinforcing (i.e., when the neurons are fir-
ing, they inhibit neurons that would otherwise
turn them off, and hence they are disinhibited
by their own activity). As a result, firing by each
side of the circuit tends to be self-perpetuating,
and the circuit tends to spend nearly all of its
time with either one side or the other in ascen-
dancy, and very little time in transition. These
sharp boundaries between wakefulness and
sleep are a key feature of normal physiology, as
it would be maladaptive for animals to walk
around half-asleep or to spend long portions of
their normal sleep cycle half-awake.
REM sleep is a stage of sleep in which the
brain enters a very different state from the high-
voltage slow waves that characterize NREM
sleep. As indicated in Box 1–3, during REM
sleep, the forebrain shows low-voltage, fast EEG
activity similar to wakefulness, and the ascend-
ing cholinergic system is even more active than
during a wakeful state. However, the ascending
monoaminergic systems cease firing virtually
completely during REM sleep,
46–49
so that the
increased thalamocortical transmission seen
during REM sleep falls upon a cerebral cortex
that lacks the priming to maintain a wakeful
state. As a result, REM sleep is sometimes called
paradoxical sleep because the cortex gives an
EEG appearance of wakefulness, and yet the
The nearly simultaneous publication of the two results established firmly that nar-
colepsy could be produced in animals by impairment of orexin signaling.
Over the following year, it became clear that most humans with narcolepsy do
not have a genetic defect either of the orexin gene or of its receptors, although a
few cases with onset during infancy and particularly severe narcolepsy were found
to be due to this cause.
72
Instead, postmortem studies showed that narcoleptics
with cataplexy lose about 90% of their orexin neurons, and that the spinal fluid levels
of orexin often are very low.
72–74
However, the nearby melanin-concentrating
hormone neurons were not affected. This specificity suggested either an autoim-
mune or neurodegenerative cause of the orexin cell loss.
The presence of type 2 orexin receptors on histaminergic neurons, type 1 recep-
tors in the locus coeruleus, and both types of orexin receptors on serotoninergic
and other neurons in the pontine reticular formation
75
suggests that one or more
of these targets may be critical for regulating the transitions to REM sleep that are
disrupted in patients with narcolepsy.
Box 1–4 Orexin and Narcolepsy (cont.)
22
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
Figure 1–3. The ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO), shown in purple, inhibits the components of the ascending arousal
system during sleep. VLPO neurons contain both gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and an inhibitory peptide, galanin, and
send axons to most of the cell groups that compose the ascending arousal system. This unique relationship allows the VLPO
neurons effectively to turn off the arousal systems during sleep. Loss of VLPO neurons results in profound insomnia. 5-
HT, serotonin; ACh, acetylcholine; DA, dopamine; Gal, ; His, histamine; LC, locus coeruleus; LDT, laterodorsal tegmental
nuclei; NA, noradrenaline; ORX, orexin; PeF, ; PPT, pedunculopontine; TMN, tuberomammillary nucleus; vPAG, ventral
periaqueductal gray matter. (From Saper, CB, Scammell, TE, Lu J. Hypothalamic regulation of sleep and circadian rhythms.
Nature 437:1257–1263, 2005. By permission of Nature Publishing Group.)
Figure 1–4. A diagram of the flip-flop relationship between the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO), which promotes
sleep, and several monoaminergic cell groups that contribute to the arousal system, including the locus coeruleus (LC), the
tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN), and raphe nuclei. During wakefulness (a), the orexin neurons (ORX) are active, stimu-
lating the monoamine nuclei, which both cause arousal and inhibit the VLPO to prevent sleep. During sleep (b), the
VLPO and extended VLPO (eVLPO) inhibit the monoamine groups and the orexin neurons, thus preventing arousal. This
mutually inhibitory relationship ensures that transitions between wake and sleep are rapid and complete. (From Saper, CB,
Scammell, TE, Lu J. Hypothalamic regulation of sleep and circadian rhythms. Nature 437:1257–1263, 2005. By permission
of Nature Publishing Group.)
23
individual is profoundly unresponsive to exter-
nal stimuli.
A second flip-flop switch in the pons for
switching from NREM to REM sleep (and back
again) has recently been identified in the rostral
pons. Many GABAergic neurons in the extended
part of the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus are
specifically active during REM sleep, suggest-
ing that they inhibit a population of REM-off
neurons.
88
In addition, the orexin neurons in
the lateral hypothalamus are excitatory, but their
firing inhibits REM sleep, suggesting that they
may activate REM-off neurons, as patients or
animals with narcolepsy who lack orexin neu-
rons transition into REM sleep exceptionally
quickly.
70,89
By searching for the intersection of
these two pathways, a population of neurons
was defined in the rostral pons, including the
ventrolateral periaqueductal gray matter and the
lateral pontine tegmentum at the level where
they are adjacent to the dorsal raphe nucleus.
These sites contain many GABAergic neurons,
and lesions of this region increase REM sleep,
confirming a REM-off influence.
53
GABAergic
neurons in the REM-off area innervate an ad-
jacent region including the sublaterodorsal nu-
cleus and pre-coeruleus region that contain
REM-active neurons. This REM-on region con-
tains two types of neurons. GABAergic neurons,
mainly in the sublaterodorsal nucleus, project
back to the REM-off area. This produces a flip-
flop switch relationship accounting for the ten-
dency for transitions into and out of REM sleep
to be relatively abrupt. A second population of
neurons is glutamatergic. Glutamatergic REM-
on neurons in the sublaterodorsal nucleus pro-
ject to the brainstem and spinal cord, where
they are thought to be responsible for the motor
manifestations of REM sleep, including atonia
and perhaps the rapid eye movements that are
the hallmarks of the state. Glutamatergic REM-
on neurons in the coeruleus region target the
basal forebrain where they appear to be critical
for maintaining EEG phenomena associated
with REM sleep.
Cholinergic and monoaminergic influences
may have a modulatory effect on REM sleep by
playing upon this flip-flop switch mechanism.
Although lesions of these systems do not have
a major effect on REM sleep, overactivity may
have quite dramatic effects. For example, injec-
tions of cholinomimetic agents into the region
containing the REM switch can trigger pro-
longed bouts of a REM-like state in animals.
90
Whether this is due to activating REM-on neu-
rons or inhibiting REM-off neurons (or both)
is not known. On the other hand, patients who
take antidepressants that are either serotonin
or norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (or both)
have very little REM sleep. This effect may be
due to the excess monoamines activating the
REM-off neurons or inhibiting the REM-on
Figure 1–5. The control elements for rapid eye movement (REM) sleep also form a flip-flop switch. Gamma-aminobutyric
acid (GABA)-ergic REM-off neurons in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray matter (vlPAG) and the lateral pontine teg-
mentum (LPT) inhibit the REM-on neurons in the sublaterodorsal (SLD) and the precoeruleus (PC) areas, whereas GABA-
ergic SLD neurons inhibit the vlPAG and the LPT. This mutual inhibition forms a second flip-flop switch that regulates
transitions into and out of REM sleep, which also are generally rapid and complete. Other modulatory systems, such as the
extended ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (Ex VLPO) and the melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) and orexin neurons in
the hypothalamus, regulate REM sleep by their inputs to this switch. Similarly, the monoaminergic dorsal raphe nucleus
(DRN) and locus coeruleus (LC) inhibit REM sleep by activating the REM-off neurons, and cholinergic neurons in the
pedunculopontine (PPT) and laterodorsal tegmental nuclei (LDT) activate REM sleep by inhibiting neurons in the REM-
off region. Neurons in the SLD cause motor atonia during REM sleep by excitatory inputs to inhibitory interneurons in the
ventromedial medulla (VMM) and the spinal cord (SC), which inhibit alpha motor neurons. Neurons in the PC contact the
medial septum (MS) and basal forebrain (BF), which drive the electroencephalogram (EEG) phenomena associated with
REM sleep. (Modified from Lu, Sherman, Devor, et al.,
53
by permission.)
24
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
neurons (or both) and thereby locking the in-
dividual out of REM sleep.
70,89
Relationship of Coma to Sleep
Because the brain enters a state of quiescence
during sleep on a daily basis, it is natural to
wonder whether coma may not be a pathologic
entrance into the sleep state. In fact, both
impaired states of consciousness and NREM
sleep are characterized by EEG patterns that
include increased amounts of high-voltage slow
waves. Both conditions are due, ultimately, to
lack of activity by the ascending arousal system.
However, in sleep, the lack of activity is due to
an intrinsically regulated inhibition of the arou-
sal system, whereas in coma the impairment of
the arousal system is due either to damage to
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