may be minimal, as in this case. Fibrin-platelet
vegetations may be difficult to visualize even with
transesophageal echocardiogram, possibly be-
cause the vegetations are very friable and may
embolize shortly after they form. However, cere-
bral infarcts or a fluctuating level of consciousness,
with or without focal signs, should prompt a dili-
gent search for a coagulopathy in a cancer patient.
Sequelae of Hypoxia
Following apparent recovery from an acute
hypoxic insult, about 3%
195
of patients relapse
into a severe delayed postanoxic encephalop-
athy. Our own experience with this disorder
now extends to well over 20 cases (Patient
1–1). The onset in our patients has been as
early as 4 days and as late as 14 days after the
initial hypoxia; reports from other authors give
an even longer interval.
196
The clinical picture
includes an initial hypoxic insult that usually is
sufficiently severe that patients are in deep
coma when first found but awaken within 24
to 48 hours. Occasionally, however, relapse
has been reported after a mild hypoxic insult
that was sufficient only to daze the patient and
not to cause full unconsciousness.
196
In either
event, nearly all patients resume full activity
within 4 or 5 days after the initial insult and
then enjoy a clear and seemingly normal in-
terval of 2 to 40 days. Then, abruptly, affected
subjects become irritable, apathetic, and con-
fused. Some are agitated or develop mania.
Walking changes to a halting shuffle, and dif-
fuse spasticity or rigidity appears. The deteri-
oration may progress to coma or death or may
arrest itself at any point. Most patients have a
second recovery period that leads to full health
within a year,
195
although some remain per-
manently impaired. Hyperbaric oxygen given
at the initial insult does not appear to prevent
the development of this neurologic problem.
197
The MRI reveals a low apparent diffu-
sion coefficient, which recovers over several
months to a year. The typical distribution of
lesions includes the deep white matter, partic-
ularly in the posterior part of the hemisphere,
and the basal ganglia. This pattern is similar
to the distribution of infarcts seen in patients
with mitochondrial encephalopathies and may
be due to the impairment of cellular oxidative
metabolism in both cases. The serial changes
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
219
are consistent with cytotoxic edema, perhaps
from apoptosis triggered by the hypoxia.
198
The
pathogenesis of the delay to neurologic dete-
rioration is not known.
Patient 5–11
A 35-year-old electrical engineer was diagnosed
with hypokalemic periodic paralysis. Attacks were
often precipitated by eating foods rich in sugar,
which caused a sudden drop in potassium. One
day, after eating a jelly doughnut he went to ex-
ercise in the gym. He became gradually weaker
and called for help, but soon was so weak that he
became apneic. Despite the eventual participation
of bystanders in artificial ventilation, he suffered
an estimated period of about 5 minutes of severe
hypoxia. He was resuscitated by paramedics and
brought to the hospital, where he awoke quickly
and resumed normal activity. On the fourth day
after his hypoxic event he became drowsy, then
lapsed into a stuporous state and then a coma.
After about a week he again woke up but was
blind, and soon developed athetotic limb move-
ments. When he was seen 3 months later he was of
normal intelligence, had normal pupillary light
responses, but did not have conscious light per-
ception. There was facial grimacing and constant
chorea and athetosis in all four limbs. MRI scan of
the brain demonstrated white matter injury in both
the posterior parts of both cerebral hemispheres as
well as the basal ganglia bilaterally.
Delayed coma after hypoxia has been re-
ported most often after carbon monoxide or
asphyxial gas poisoning, but as shown in Patient
5–11, cases are known in which other injuries,
including hypoglycemia, cardiac arrest, stran-
gulation, or a complication of surgical anes-
thesia, have provided the antecedent insult.
Often, the neurologic changes are at first mis-
taken for a psychiatric disorder or even a sub-
dural hematoma because of the lucid interval.
Mental status examination clarifies the first of
these errors, and the diffuse distribution of the
neurologic changes, the lack of headache, and
the absence of signs of rostral caudal deterio-
ration as well as MRI eliminate the second.
Pathologically, the brains of patients dying
of delayed postanoxic deterioration contain dif-
fuse, severe, and bilateral leukoencephalopa-
thy of the cerebral hemispheres with sparing
of the immediate subcortical connecting fibers
and, usually, of the brainstem.
199
Demyelin-
ation is prominent and axis cylinders appear
reduced in number. The basal ganglia are
sometimes infarcted,
200
but the nerve cells of
the cerebral hemispheres and the brainstem
remain mostly intact. The mechanism of the
unusual white matter response is unknown. A
few patients have been reported to have had
aryl-sulfatase-A pseudodeficiency. This genetic
defect is not known to cause cerebral disease
and its relationship to the demyelination is un-
clear.
201
The diagnosis of coma caused by
postanoxic encephalopathy is made from the
history of the initial insult and by recognizing
the characteristic signs and symptoms of met-
abolic coma. There is no specific treatment,
but bedrest for patients with acute hypoxia
may prevent the complication.
Another sequela of severe diffuse hypoxia is
the syndrome of intention or action myoclo-
nus.
202
Patients suffering from this syndrome
generally have had an episode of severe hyp-
oxia caused by cardiac arrest or airway ob-
struction and have usually had generalized
convulsions during the hypoxic episode. About
40% of patients who do not regain conscious-
ness after cardiac resuscitation develop myo-
clonic status epilepticus.
203
The development
of myoclonic status epilepticus in the comatose
patient portends a poor prognosis, although we
have seen an occasional patient recover. Af-
fected patients who awaken from posthypoxic
coma usually are dysarthric, and attempted vol-
untary movements are marked by myoclonic
jerks of trunk and limb muscles. The path-
ophysiologic basis of this disorder has not
been established. Electrophysiologically, the
myoclonus can be either cortical or subcorti-
cal.
204
The cortical form may respond to leve-
tiracetam; the subcortical may respond to
5-hydroxytryptophan.
204
DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE OR
COFACTOR AVAILABILITY
Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia is a common and serious
cause of metabolic coma and one capable of
remarkably varied combinations of signs and
220
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
symptoms.
205
Among patients with severe hy-
poglycemic coma, most have been caused by
excessive doses of insulin or oral hypoglycemic
agents for the treatment of diabetes. In one
series of 51 patients admitted to the hospital
for hypoglycemia, 41 were diabetics, 36 being
treated with insulin and five with sulfonylurea
drugs. In nondiabetic patients, the hypogly-
cemia had been induced by excessive alcohol
and one patient had injected herself with in-
sulin in a suicide attempt.
206
Less frequent
causes of hypoglycemic coma were insulin-
secreting pancreatic adenomas, retroperito-
neal sarcomas, and hemochromatosis with liver
disease. In patients taking either insulin or
oral hypoglycemics, the addition of fluoroqui-
nolones, mostly gatifloxacin or ciprofloxacin,
may induce severe hypoglycemia
207
(gatiflox-
acin can also cause hyperglycemia
208
). The in-
take of alcohol and perhaps psychoactive drugs
in insulin-treated diabetics with severe hypo-
glycemia is relatively common. In fact, alcohol
alone is responsible for a significant percentage
of patients with severe hypoglycemia.
209
It is
therefore important to check blood glucose
even in patients in whom cognitive impairment
can be attributed to alcohol ingestion. Fortu-
nately, in most emergency departments a blood
glucose from a fingerstick is done as a matter
of course in any patient with altered men-
tal status.
Pathologically, hypoglycemia directs its main
damage at the cerebral hemispheres, produc-
ing laminar or pseudolaminar necrosis in fatal
cases, but largely sparing the brainstem. Clini-
cally, the picture of acute metabolic encepha-
lopathy caused by hypoglycemia usually pres-
ents in one of four forms: (1) as a delirium
manifested primarily by mental changes with
either quiet and sleepy confusion or wild ma-
nia; (2) coma accompanied by signs of multi-
focal brainstem dysfunction including neuro-
genic hyperventilation and decerebrate spasms.
In this form pupillary light reactions, as well as
oculocephalic and oculovestibular responses,
are usually preserved to suggest that the un-
derlying disorder is metabolic. The patients
sometimes have shiver-like diffuse muscle ac-
tivity and many are hypothermic (338C to
358C); (3) as a stroke-like illness characterized
by focal neurologic signs with or without ac-
companying coma. In one series of patients
requiring hospital admission, 5% suffered tran-
sient focal neurologic abnormalities.
206
In pa-
tients with focal motor signs, permanent motor
paralysis is uncommon and the weakness tends
to shift from side to side during different ep-
isodes of metabolic worsening. This kind of
shifting deficit, as well as the fact that focal
neurologic signs also occur in children in coma
with severe hypoglycemia, stands against ex-
plaining the localized neurologic deficits as be-
ing caused by cerebral vascular disease; (4) as
an epileptic attack with single or multiple gen-
eralized convulsions and postictal coma. In one
series, 20% had generalized seizures.
206
Many
hypoglycemic patients convulse as the blood
sugar level drops, and some have seizures as
their only manifestation of hypoglycemia lead-
ing to an erroneous diagnosis of epilepsy. The
varying clinical picture of hypoglycemia often
leads to mistaken clinical diagnoses, particu-
larly when in a given patient the clinical pic-
ture varies from episode to episode, as in
Patient 5–12.
Patient 5–12
A 45-year-old woman was hospitalized for treat-
ment of a large pelvic sarcoma. She had liver
metastases and was malnourished. On morning
rounds she was found to be unresponsive. Her
eyes were open, but she did not respond to ques-
tioning, although she moved all four extremities
in response to noxious stimuli. She was sweating
profusely. The blood glucose was 40 mg/dL. Her
symptoms cleared immediately after an intrave-
nous glucose infusion. The next day her roommate
called for help when the patient did not respond
to her questions. This time she was awake and
alert but globally aphasic with a right hemiparesis.
Again she was hypoglycemic, and the symptoms
resolved after the infusion of glucose.
Comment: The variability and neurologic find-
ings from episode to episode make hypoglycemia
a great imitator, particularly of structural disease
of the nervous system, raising the question of
whether prehospital blood glucose measurement
should be done in all patients suspected by emer-
gency medical services of having had a stroke. In
one such series of 185 patients suspected of ‘‘ce-
rebral vascular accident,’’ five were found to be
hypoglycemic and all were medication-controlled
diabetics. All of these patients improved after re-
ceiving glucose.
210
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
221
Neither the history nor the physical exami-
nation reliably distinguishes hypoglycemia from
other causes of metabolic coma, although (as
is true in hepatic coma) an important clinical
point is that the pupillary and vestibulo-ocular
reflex pathways are almost always spared. The
great danger of delayed diagnosis is that the
longer hypoglycemia lasts, the more likely it is
to produce irreversible neuronal loss. This may
be the reason that more diabetics treated with
insulin have EEG abnormalities than those
treated with diet alone.
211
Insidious and pro-
gressive dementia is not rare among zealously
controlled diabetics who often suffer recurrent
minor hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemic seizures
cause permanent cognitive deficits in children
with diabetes,
212
but even repetitive episodes
of hypoglycemia without seizures can lead to
cognitive dysfunction.
213
Patients with severe
hypoglycemia often have changes on MRI sug-
gesting cerebral infarction (hyperintensity on
diffusion-weighted images).
90
These abnormal-
ities may reverse after treatment with glucose
and thus do not imply permanent damage.
214
Subtle hypoglycemia can go unrecognized, as
Patient 5–13 illustrates.
Patient 5–13
A 77-year-old man with unresectable mesothe-
lioma who had lost his appetite and was losing
weight awoke one morning feeling ‘‘unusually
good’’ and for the first time in weeks having an
appetite. He got dressed and while descending the
stairs from his bedroom slipped and fell but did not
injure himself. He seated himself at the breakfast
table, but despite indicating an appetite did not
attempt to eat. His wife noticed that his speech
was slurred, his balance was poor, and he did not
respond appropriately to questions. She finally
coaxed him to eat and after breakfast he returned
entirely to normal. The following morning the
same thing happened and his wife brought him to
the emergency department, where his blood sugar
was determined to be 40 mg/dL. He responded
immediately to glucose.
Comment: What appeared to be hunger should
have been a clue that he was hypoglycemic, but
because the patient was not a diabetic, neither he
nor his family had any suspicion of the nature of
the problem. His wife dismissed the first episode
because he recovered after breakfast. Alert emer-
gency department physicians recognized the na-
ture of the second episode and treated him ap-
propriately.
Once recognized, the treatment is simple.
Ten percent glucose given intravenously in 50-
mL (5g) aliquots to restore blood glucose to
normal levels prevents the possible deleterious
overshoot of giving 50% glucose.
215
Restoring
blood glucose will almost always return neuro-
logic function to normal, although sometimes
not immediately. However, prolonged coma and
irreversible diffuse cortical injury can occasion-
ally result from severe hypoglycemia. Relapses,
particularly in patients taking sulfonylureas, are
common. The sulfonylurea agents cause hypo-
glycemia by binding to a receptor on pancreatic
beta cells, the inactive ATP-dependent potas-
sium channels causing depolarization of the
beta cell and opening voltage-gated calcium
channels to release insulin. Octreotide binds to
a second receptor of the pancreatic beta cell
and inhibits calcium influx, reducing the se-
cretion of insulin after depolarization. This
drug has been used to treat those patients with
sulfonylurea overdose who are resistant to IV
glucose.
147
Hyperglycemia
The diabetic patient must walk a tight line
between hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia, as
both can damage the brain. As indicated on
page 203, increasing evidence suggests that
hyperglycemia deleteriously affects the prog-
nosis in patients with brain injury whether due
to trauma or stroke. Increasing efforts are be-
ing made to control blood glucose in intensive
care units, although it is not yet clear how that
affects prognosis.
73
Hyperglycemia is associ-
ated with cognitive defects and an increased
risk of dementia, particularly in the elderly.
216
Diabetic encephalopathy can be caused at least
in part by toxic effects of hyperglycemia on the
brain that include increased polyol pathway flux,
sorbitol accumulation, myoinositol depletion,
increased oxidative stress, nonenzymatic pro-
tein glycation, and disturbed calcium homeo-
stasis.
216
Hyperglycemia also has acute effects
on the brain, as in the syndrome of diabetic
nonketotic hyperosmolar states, as discussed in
222
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
the section on hyperosmolality (page 255), and
can result in delirium, stupor, or coma.
Cofactor Deficiency
Deficiency of one or more of the B vitamins can
cause delirium, stupor, and ultimately demen-
tia, but only thiamine deficiency seriously con-
tends for a place in the differential diagnosis of
coma.
136,217,218
Thiamine deficiency produces Wernicke’s
encephalopathy, a symptom complex caused
by neuronal dysfunction that, if not reversed,
promptly leads to damage of the gray matter
and blood vessels surrounding the third ven-
tricle, cerebral aqueduct, and fourth ventri-
cle.
217
Why the lesions have such a focal dis-
tribution is not altogether understood since,
when thiamine is not ingested, it disappears
from all brain areas at about the same rate.
One investigator has proposed that with severe
thiamine deficiency, glutamate and glutamic
acid decarboxylase accumulate in peripheral
tissues. The elevated levels of glutamate in the
blood pass through circumventricular organs
(brain areas without a blood-brain barrier) into
the cerebral ventricles and contiguous brain,
finally diffusing into the extracellular space
of diencephalic and brainstem tissues. The
damage to cells in this area is then produced
by glutamate excitotoxicity.
16
Because alpha-
ketoglutarate dehydrogenase is thiamine de-
pendent and rate limiting in the tricarboxylic
acid cycle, focal lactic acidosis, decreases in
cerebral energy, and resultant depolarization
have also been postulated as causes of the focal
defect.
15
In addition, a thiamine-dependent
enzyme, transketolase, loses its activity in the
pontine tegmentum more rapidly than in other
areas, and it is presumed that a focal effect
such as this is related to the restricted patho-
logic changes. Thiamine reverses at least some
of the neurologic defects in Wernicke’s en-
cephalopathy so rapidly that for years phy-
sicians have speculated that the vitamin is
involved in synaptic transmission. Thiamine-
deficient animals have a marked impairment of
serotonergic neurotransmitter pathways in the
cerebellum, diencephalon, and brainstem.
219
The areas of diencephalic and brainstem in-
volvement in animals correspond closely to the
known distribution of pathologic lesions in
humans with Wernicke’s encephalopathy. Thi-
amine affects active ion transport at nerve ter-
minals and is necessary for regeneration and
maintenance of the membrane potential.
220
The ultimate cause of thiamine deficiency is
absence of the vitamin from the diet, and the
most frequent reason is that patients have sub-
stituted alcohol for vitamin-containing foods.
A danger is that the disease can be precipitated
by giving vitamin-free glucose infusions to
chronically malnourished subjects. A significant
number of elderly hospitalized patients have
evidence of moderate to severe thiamine defi-
ciency. Before it was routine to add thiamine to
intravenous infusions in hospitalized patients,
we encountered on the wards in a cancer hos-
pital one or two very sick patients a year who
were not eating and developed Wernicke’s dis-
ease when being nourished by IV infusions
221
without vitamins. We still encounter occasional
such patients on the wards in a general hospital.
In some cases that we have seen, thiamine had
been prescribed orally. However, its absorption
orally is unreliable, particularly in patients who
are malnourished; hence, it must be supplied by
IV or IM injection for at least the first few days
in any patient with suspected Wernicke’s en-
cephalopathy.
As would be expected with lesions involving
the diencephalic and periaqueductal struc-
tures, patients are initially obtunded and con-
fused, and often have striking memory failure.
Deep stupor or coma is unusual, dangerous,
and often a preterminal development. How-
ever, such behavioral symptoms are common
to many disorders. They can be attributed to
Wernicke’s disease only when accompanied
by nystagmus, oculomotor paralysis, and im-
paired vestibulo-ocular responses that are sub-
sequently reversed by thiamine treatment. In Dostları ilə paylaş: |