Postmodernism as the phonomenon of american culturein the second half of the XX century
Women in British Romantic Theatres
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2.2. Women in British Romantic Theatres
This fiction is realistic in its basic outlook but often non-mimetic in its representation of reality” (Alsen 1996:7). 67 Alsen further argues that a dominant stream of postmodernist fiction is Romantic because of their idealistic (rather than postmodern realists’ materialistic) outlook and vision of life and their tendency towards creation of a metaphorical rather than metonymical image of reality which he thinks is typical of realistic postmodernists. Such authors as Paul Auster, Saul Bellow, Flannery O’Connor, J.D. Salinger, Kurt Vonnegut, Norman Mailer, Joyce Carol Oates and others are, in his view, romantic postmodernists (Alsen 1996:23), although many of them could rather be even understood as modernist than postmodernist authors. b) or used and developed a more complicated narrative framework than the first generation of postmodern authors (John Barth, Donald Barthelme, Thomas Pynchon, Richard Brautigan, Robert Coover, Raymond Federman, William Gaddis, Ronald Sukenick and others) by the use of complex intertextual allusions (Villiam Vollmann, David Foster Wallace), reference and modification of the theories and metaphors of such sciences as macrobiology (Richard Powers), mathematics, cybernetics and computer science (David Foster Wallace, Richard Powers). Some of these authors used radical ironic and parodic stance to the works of already postmodern authors (David Foster Wallace referring to, modifying and playfully transforming John Barth’s famous short story Lost in the Funhouse in his The Westward Expansion Westward the Course of the Empire Takes Its Way, 1989) and thus their work becomes a complex almost post-postmodern structure that create a literary work which some critics can call meta-metafictional novels As it was mentioned above, despite the fact that such works as John Hawkes’ The Cannibal William Burrough’s The Naked Lunch, Jack Kerouac’s On the Road (1957), Vladimir Nabokov’s Lolita (1955), John Barth’s The Floating Opera, The End of the Road, William Gaddis’ Recognitions (1955) used postmodern narrative devices, have directly influenced American postmodern fiction and were even called postmodern literary works, the boom of the American postmodern fiction can be observed in 1960’s when these and other American authors started to use postmodern narrative techniques and aesthetic principles reflecting postmodern vision of the world as understood by Susan Sontag, John Barth, Leslie Fiedler and others deliberately and systematically. These authors were referred to as “disruptive” and “superfictionists” (Klinkowitz), “surfictionists” (Federman, 1974), “midfictionists” (Alan Wilde) writing in a, according to Jerome Klinkowitz, “post-contemporary . 68 age”. They emphasized linguistic and semantic playfulness of the text, broadly used postmodern parody, radical irony, metafictional techniques and their works were often radically fragmented on the level of the narrative line, depiction of characters, setting and the whole composition. The first literary works by American authors most critics would agree were truly postmodern are John Barth’s The Sot-Weed Factor (1960), Thomas Pynchon’s V (1962), Richard Brautigan’s The Confederate General from Big Sur (1964), Vladimir Nabokov’s Lolita (1955). Especially the period between 1967-68 was very productive when such works as Donald Barthelme’s Snow White, Robert Coover’s The Universal Baseball Association, William Gass’ In the Heart of the Heart of the Country, Ronald Sukenick’s Up, Jerzy Kosinski’s Steps, Richard Brautigan’s Trout Fishing in America (1968), Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five (1969) were published. It seems that John Barth has become one of the most representative authors of postmodern fiction who started to write postmodern novels systematically since the 1960s. John Barth (1930). John Barth is not only a fiction writer, but also a literary critic and theorist whose views on literature and art have significantly influenced not only American, but also other world fiction. As it was mentioned above, in his theoretical works and essays he suggested using not new, but rather existing form and genres which reflects, in his view, an exhaustion of the possibilities of literary innovation by the use of new form (his essay Literature of Exhaustion). That is why rather than newness, he emphasized a modification of existing, especially popular literary genres to which the authors would have not only a critical attitude, but their, however parodic use, would help the authors to rehabilitate formerly low (popular) forms of literature and art and thus to eradicate a difference between high and low culture discussed by Leslie Fiedler in the 1960s. It does not mean the authors should mechanically imitate the forms of popular literature, but they should playfully and creatively use them to create artistic value and aesthetic effect in keeping with the postmodern vision of the world which is characterized by massive spread of popular culture especially through media such as television, cinemas, and popular magazines. John Barth thus often parodied popular literary genres such as fairy tales, adventure and love stories, sci-fi, extensively used intertextuality, his works are mostly fragmented and metafictional in which reality overlaps with fiction, 69 dreams and fantasy. Through the use of metafictional elements (parody, intertextuality, direct treatment of the writing process) he often deals with the relationships between life and art, the author, literary work and a reader, as well as with the nature of the writing process. Barth’s first novels The Floating Opera (1956) and End of the Road (1958) were still influenced by modernist poetics, but have also expressed the feelings of nihilism and existentialism enriched by the black humor that are the elements that have implied postmodern vision of the world the author fully developed in his later novels. Playing with the existentialist positions, parodox and irony manifest themselves in Barth’s The Floating Opera in which he depicts Todd Andrews writing about a day in which he decided not to commit suicide and who comes to the conclusion that committing a suicide is the same meaningless as not commit it that is why there is no reason to do this act. End of the Road depicts a similar protagonist who tries to explore his inner self through the so-called “mythotherapy” which, however, fails and thus he continues to suffer of “cosmopsis”. Jack Horner, a protagonist, is unable to develop his love relationships, takes up various masks to survive in life, and finally falls into nihilistic attitudes unable of doing any meaningful action. Barth’s next novel The Sot-Weed Factor (1960) draws its subject-matter on the title of real historical personality – a Poet Laureate of the Maryland Colony who was well-known in early 18th century. Barth parodies and creatively modifies Cook’s famous epic poem and English picaresque, adventure and other tales of the colonial period. Depiction of Henry Burlingame adapting various identities (a pirate, Lord Baltimore) symbolizing America enables Barth to reconsider American history. This is achieved through his parody of the above genres along with the intertextual elements, documentary passages, extracts from diaries and manuals that create a metafictional effect. These metafictional passages point out the relationship between reality and fiction, writer, literary work, and readers, as well as between life and art which are typically postmodern and post-structuralist concerns. Also in his next novel, Giles Goat-Boy, or the Revised New Syllabus (1966), Barth uses typical postmodern devices and techniques such as postmodern parody, irony, metafiction and intertextual elements. The novel is set in the future and depicts university setting. Modern world is depicted symbolically as a university controlled by a computer which is able to get out of a human control, tyranize and destroy the world which is theme of famous popular works such as Frankenstein Barth is reworking in a postmodern context. Giles, a hybrid protagonist of the novel, half-human and half-goat, represents a duality of 70 human nature – its propensity to violence and animal destruction, and its ability of emotional committment. The novel can also be understood as a parody on American exceptionalism and manifest destiny as expressed in John Winhtrop’s famous sermon A Model of Christian Charity. On the other level, the novel can be read as a critique of the sterility of produced by new technology and media and as a postmodern parody of typical popular literary genres such as sci-fi and fantasy mentioned above. At the same time, on the other symbolic level, the novel is also a novel on the relationships between the author, literary work and a reader). Barth further developed postmodern metafictional techniques and extensively parodied, modified and recontextualized famous literary works and popular literary genres, and, within allegorical framework, deals with the relationship between fiction and reality, author, literary work, and a reader in his short story collection Lost in the Funhouse (1968), Chimera (1974), Letters (1979), Sabbatical: A Romance (1982), The Tidewater Tales (1987), The Last Voyage of Somebody the Sailor (1991) and others. In the short story Lost in the Funhouse from the above collection, the narrator is a young boy Ambrose on a trip with his parents who finally gets lost in funhouse reminiscent of a labyrinth which is extended to a metaphor of writing. Labyrinth indicates Ambrose’s inability to continue with his story which he self-reflexively discusses. Chimera, The Tidewater Tales, and the Last Voyage are playful reworkings of famous Arabian Nights stories and glorify the power of imagination and storytelling. All these stories represent a practical application of Barth’s idea of “exhaustion” of the possibilities of literature known from his famous essay Literature of Exhaustion but, in keeping with his ideas from this essay, point out creative possibilities and inspiration of existing literary genres and forms of literature through their parodic and playful postmodern modifications. Also Barth’s next novel Once Upon a Time: A Floating Opera (1994) is a parodic reworking of popular culture such as opera and fairy tale including autobiographical character Jerry Schreiber reminiscent of Barth himself. On with a Story (1996) is another example of Barth’s fascination with the power of storytelling and Coming Soon!!! A Narrative (2001) uses a typical slogan of commercials and is a parodic reworking of film genres as well as a critique of contemporary consumerism and commercialism. Previously uncollected stories appear in one of John Barth’s latest works The Book of Ten Nights and a Night: Eleven Stories (2004) is reminiscent of a dialogue between the author, his work and artistic inspiration in which the author refers to the September 11, 2001 terrorist bombing of the Twins in New York City, but does not deal with political, but rather cultural situation. These short stories are also symbolically dealing with the relationship between life 71 and art, author, literary work and a reader. Barth has collected his critical views, articles and essays in his The Friday Book (1984) and Further Fridays. Donald Barthelme (1930-1989) Donald Barthelme along with John Barth, Thomas Pynchon, and Robert Coover are perhaps the most internationally known American authors. Like John Barth, Donald Barthelme was also a theorist, critic and academic. He worked for the Post newspaper, was draft to Korea during the War (1953-1955), studied journalism at the University of Houston, Texas, worked as an editor for Forum, temporary director of Contemporary Arts Museum of Houston, editor of Location, Distinguished Visiting Professor of English at the City University of New York (1974-1975) These jobs and career have enabled him to both apply and play with various theories, philosophies and academic discourse in his literary works he started to send and publish in the New Yorker magazine in early 1960s. It manifests itself especially in his short stories in which he used and played with visual and graphic design as well as with the forms of popular culture (comic strips, comic books). In his short story Kierkegaard Unfair to Schlegel he plays with some ideas and philosophies of both philosophers in a form of a Socratic dialogue which makes not only this, but also other stories complex and highly intellectualized for a common reader. In his short stories and novels, Barthelme often uses dialogues between often indefinite characters, fragmentation, intertextuality and often also a questionnaire which is inserted in the story or a novel (Snow White, for example) and which often self-reflexively questions the narrative development itself and thus it becomes metafictional and typically postmodern element. Barthelme often parodies popular literary genres such as medieval romances (The King), fairy tales (Snow White, Glass Mountain), fantasy (The Sandman), film thrillers (Hiding Man) and many others. Barthelme’s fiction is marked by radical irony, parody, linguistic play, and fragmentation that he develops into a metaphor of contemporary postmodern condition. He seems to understand language influenced by media, commercialism and consumerism to be unable to express the meaning and the words become mere material, objects, “dreck”, almost commercial objects deprived of their communicative function since they are often used in inappropriate, commercial and consumerist context most of the people from highly technologically advanced countries are influenced by. At the same time, Barthelme’s juxtaposition of 72 incompatible images, stylistic and linguistic combinations enables him to create oxymoronic, irrational and fantastic situations a reader must decipher in her/his search for meaning. Conclusion Postmodernism is a complicated term, or set of ideas, one that has only emerged as an area of academic study since the mid-1980s. Postmodernism is hard to define, because it is a concept that appears in a wide variety of disciplines or areas of study, including art, architecture, music, film, literature, sociology, communications, fashion, and technology. It's hard to locate it temporally or historically, because it's not clear exactly when postmodernism begins. Perhaps the easiest way to start thinking about postmodernism is by thinking about modernism, the movement from which postmodernism seems to grow or emerge. Postmodernism is "post" because it is denies the existence of any ultimate principles, and it lacks the optimism of there being a scientific, philosophical, or religious truth which will explain everything for everybody - a characteristic of the so-called "modern" mind. The paradox of the postmodern position is that, in placing all principles under the scrutiny of its skepticism, it must realize that even its own principles are not beyond questioning. Postmodernist writers often point to early novels and story collections as inspiration for their experiments with narrative and structure: Don Quixote, 1001 Arabian Nights, The Decameron, and Candide, among many others. In the English language, Laurence Sterne's 1759 novel The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, with its heavy emphasis on parody and narrative experimentation, is often cited as an early influence on postmodernism. Used literature: Allen, Walter, Tradition and Dream, London: Chatto & Windus, 1986. Bradbury, Malcom, The Novel Today. Contemporary Writers on Modern Fiction, London, Fontana Press, 1990. Beebe, Maurice (Fall 1972). "Ulysses and the Age of Modernism". James Joyce Quarterly (University of Tulsa) 10 (1): p. 176. Bergonzi, Bernard, The Myth of Modernism and Twentieth Century Literature, N. York Martin Press, 1986 Brooker, Peter,ed. Modernism/Postmodernism, London, 1972. David, Deirdre The Cambridge companion to the Victorian novel p.179. Cambridge University Press, 2001 Elleke Boehmer (2008). Nelson Mandela: a very short introduction. p. 157. Oxford University Press, 2008. "'Invictus', taken on its own, Mandela clearly found his Victorian ethic of self-mastery" 8.Elmes, Simon (2005) Talking for Britain: a journey through the nation's dialects . London: Penguin Books (Word 4 word: the voices survey \ BBC). Faulkner, Peter, ModernisAm, Routledge , 1993. Fokkema, Douwe and Hans Birtens eds., Approaching Postmodernism. Amsterdom: John Benjamins, 1986 . Green, Martin, The English Novel in the Twentieth Century ( The Doom Empire ) London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984. Hutcheon, linda, A poetics of postmodernism, Londin: Routledge, 1988 . Kari, Frederick R, Modern and modernism: The sovereignty of the Artist 1885-1925, New York: Atheneum, 1985. Mc Hale, Brian, Postmodernist Fiction, New York, 1986. Oruch, Jack B., "St. Valentine, Chaucer, and Spring in February," Speculum, 56 (1981): 534–65. Oruch's survey of the literature finds no association between Valentine and romance prior to Chaucer. He concludes that Chaucer is likely to be "the original mythmaker in this instance." Colfa.utsa.edu Penn, Stephen (2005) “Literacy and Literary Production” in Chaucer: an Oxford guide, ed. Ellis, Steve (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 113-130 Thomas Weber, "Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor," Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 28–29. The Cambridge companion to Virginia Woolf. By Sue Roe, Susan Sellers. p.219. Cambridge University Press, 2000. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/postmodernism http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf www.textetc.com.postmodernism.html www.bdavetian.com.Postmodernism.html 1 Fokkema, Douwe and Hans Birtens eds., Approaching Postmodernism. Amsterdom: John Benjamins, 1986 2 Brooker, Peter, ed. Modernism/Postmodernism, London, 1972. 3 Allen, Walter, Tradition and Dream, London: Chatto & Windus, 1986. 4 Bradbury, Malcom, The Novel Today. Contemporary Writers on Modern Fiction, London, Fontana Press, 1990. 5 Mc Hale, Brian, Postmodernist Fiction, New York, 1986.. 6 Fokkema, Douwe and Hans Birtens eds., Approaching Postmodernism. Amsterdom: John Benjamins, 1986 7 Green, Martin, The English Novel in the Twentieth Century ( The Doom Empire ) London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984 8 Bergonzi, Bernard, The Myth of Modernism and Twentieth Century Literature, N. York Martin Press, 1986. Yüklə 52,89 Kb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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