Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary

2. Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

All stylistic means of a language can be divided into expressive means and stylistic devices.

The expressive means of a language are those phonetic means, morphological forms, means of word- building, and lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, all of which function in the language for emotional or logical intensification of the utterance. These forms are described in the textbooks of lexicology, stylistics, gram­mar and various dictionaries. Dictionaries label them as intensifiers.

In most cases they have corresponding neutral synonymdus forms.

The most powerful expressive means are phonetic. Among phonetic expressive means we distinguish such as pitch, melody, stress, pausation, whispering, and others.

Among the morphological expressive means the use of the Present Indefinite instead of the Past Indefinite must be mentioned. This has been acknowledged as a spe­cial means and is named the Historical Present. In descri­bing some past event the author uses the present tense, thus achieving a more vivid expression of the thought.

The use of shall in the second and third person may also be regarded as an expressive means:

"He shall do it". (I shall make him to do it).

Among word-building means we find forms which make the utterance more expressive and fresh. The dimi­nutive suffixes as -y (ie), -let, e.g.: dear - dearie; stream - streamlet, add some emotional colouring to the words.

At the lexical level there are a great many words with emotive meaning only, like interjections, words which have both referential and emotive meaning, words which retain a twofold meaning: denotative and connotative; words belonging to special group of literary English or of non-standard English (poetic, archaic, slang, vulgar, etc).

The same can be said of the set expressions of the language. Proverbs and sayings serve to make speech more emphatic.

Here is an example of a proverb used by Dickens in "Dombey and Son" to make up a simile. "As the last straw breaks the laden camaes back, this piece of underground information crus­hed the sinking spirits of Mrs. Dombey".

In every-day speech we often hear such a phrase as "Well, it will only add fuel to the fire" which can be rep­laced by synonymous neutral expressions, like "It will ma­ke the situation worse".

At the syntactical level there are many synonymous constructions, where the second in each pair contains em­phatic elements:

1. 
   I have never seen such a film. Never have I seen such a film.
   
2. 
   Mr. Smith came in first. It was Mr. Smith who came in first.
   

These expressive means are widely used for stylistic purposes.

The stylistic device is a conscious and inten­tional literary use of some of the facts of the language (including expressive means) in which the most essential features of the language are generalized. Most stylistic de­vices are regarded as aiming at the further intensification of the emotional or logical emphasis contained in the cor­responding expressive means.

Stylistic devices must always have some function in the text, besides they bring some additional information. The conception that words possess several meanings give rise to such stylistic devices as metaphor, metonymy, iro­ny, epithet and others. Thus, a metaphor is a conscious intentional intensification of semantic properties of a word:

"Oh, Rain"-said Мог. He enveloped her in a great embrace. (J.Murdoch)

The dictionary meaning of the verb "envelop" is "to wrap up, cover on all sides". The contextual meaning is "to embrace".

Other examples: 1. He wants his girl friend to mother him. (He wants his girl friend to take care of him, to protect him).

2. The prices will come down soon. (The prices will be cheaper).

The typical features of proverbs and sayings serve as the foundation for a stylistic device which is called epig­ram, i.e. brevity, rhythm and other properties of proverbs:

1. 
   A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. (J.Keets).
   
2. 
   Sweet is pleasure after pain. (J. Dryden)
   
3. 
   What the eye does not see, the stomach does not get upset. (J.K.Jerome)
   

These phrases are not proverbs, they are the creations of writers and poets. When such phrases are used in the text they accumulate great emotive force and function and easily become a stylistic device.

The same can be said about syntax. The typical structural features of oral speech - violation of wora or­der, omission of some parts of the sentence, repetition of certain words - may be intensified and gain a generalized status. Such stylistic devices as inversion, parallel constructions, chiasmus etc. are the result of these stylistic transformations.

It is important to know that the stylistic use of exp­ressive means must not necessarily lead to the formation of a stylistic device. For example, repetition is widely used in folk songs, poetry and oral speech to make our speech emotional and expressive, but we can't say that in such cases we use a stylistic device:

When the weather is wet

We must not fret.

When the weather is cold

We must not scold.

When the weather is worn

We must not storm...

Thus, expressive means are the facts of the language, while stylistic devices are the property of the speech. They are the creation of individuals (writers and poets) and are based on the peculiarities of existing expressive means of the language. In short, this is the difference between expressive means and stylistic devices.

The force of one and the same stylistic device may be different. In some cases the emotive charge may be very strong in others it may be weak. Due to the overuse of the stylistic devices it may become hackneyed, trite and loses its freshness and brightness:

1. 
   the best pens of the world (metonymy), a sweet smile (epithet), sly as a fox (simile).
   
2. 
   With his mousing walk (epithet).
   

In the first case we have trite stylistic devices, while in the second - fresh (genuine) stylistic device.

Speaking about stylistic devices we must mention the cases when two or more expressive means or stylistic de­vices meet in one utterance. Such clusters of stylistic devices are called convergence.