Teaching outdoor and adventure activities: an investigation of a primary school physical education professional development p

Content.
Enhancing teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge is a key 
feature of effective professional development (Betchel & O'Sullivan, 2006; Cordingley, 
Bell, Evans & Firth, 2003; Desimone, 2009; Fishman et al., 2003b; Garet, Porter, 
Desimone, Birman & Yoon, 2001; Guskey, 2003; Maldonado, 2002; Organisation for 
Economic Co-operation and Development, 2005). Defining knowledge and its 
constituents is a complex task and is dependent on context and individual interpretation.
In 1987, Shulman identified a list of seven sorts of essential knowledge for teachers 
(Knight, 2002; Lund, Metzler & Gurvitch, 2008): 
1.
Content knowledge
2.
General pedagogical knowledge 
3.
Curriculum knowledge 
4.
Pedagogical content knowledge - a ‘special amalgam of content and 
pedagogy …[teachers’] own form of professional understanding.’ (Shulman, 
1987) 
5.
Knowledge of learners and their characteristics 
6.
Knowledge of educational contexts 
7.
Knowledge of ‘…educational ends, purposes, and values and their 
philosophical and historical grounds’ (Schulman, 1987) 
The category given most attention in the literature and in research is that of 
pedagogical content knowledge. Cochran and colleagues (1993) propose the term 
pedagogical content knowing, which is defined as ‘a teachers integrated understanding 
of four components of pedagogy, subject matter content, student characteristics, and the 
environmental context of teaching’ (p. 266). Teachers must have a rich and flexible 
knowledge of the subjects they teach (Borko, 2004). Without basic subject content 

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knowledge how can teachers adapt and use this knowledge (pedagogical content 
knowledge) for the benefit of the children they teach?
In her study of 25 primary school teachers in New Zealand following a 
programme of physical education in-service, Petrie (2009) demonstrated that the 
teachers’ confidence and motivation to teach physical education was enhanced thus 
benefitting from the learning opportunities which were afforded them regarding 
physical education pedagogical knowledge. However, her findings showed that these 
teachers also needed to balance these opportunities with opportunities to develop their 
content knowledge. Faucette and colleagues (2002) found that in a study with 16 
primary school teachers over a two year period (Project SPARK) that prescriptive 
professional development, focussing on content knowledge, can work and also that in 
spite of teacher concerns, teaching improved. The aim of the professional development, 
which was very prescriptive focussing on content knowledge, was to promote high 
levels of physical activity for fitness and sports skill development. A total of 26 hours 
of physical education professional development support was provided to the study 
teachers over the two year study period.
Keay and Spence (2010) reported that resource-led CPD has ‘the potential to 
extend the learning of classroom professionals and make significant impact on 
improving the learning of the children in their classes’ (p. 38). If resources are to be 
included in the design of the professional development programme, their usefulness and 
applicability to the teachers’ and school’s contexts will be important. Teachers will also 
have to be given the opportunity to try out any resources provided with the children in 
their classes and opportunities to adapt and change the resources provided in order to 
meet the children’s learning needs. Petrie (2009) challenges professional development 
providers to find ways to use resources which support teachers to become independent 
practitioners, who avail of expert advice but do not become dependent on them. Care 
must be taken to ensure that teachers do not become deskilled through using prescribed 
materials and provided resources and this must be considered in the design and 
facilitation of the professional development programme.