DAY 1
1
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-16, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below.
The early history of Scott and Bowne’s cod liver oil
Cod liver oil is a type of fish oil used today for general health purposes, but northern
European fishing communities used cod liver for centuries before the doctors and
chemists of 19th-century Europe began to take an interest. Its manufacture was simple:
the livers of the codfish were left for some days, then oil was taken from them. The oil
grew darker according to how long the livers were left, resulting in three grades of oil:
pale, light brown and dark brown.
Ludovicus Josephus de Jongh of the Netherlands produced the first extensive chemical
analysis of cod liver oil in 1843. His studies of the three grades
of oil led him to conclude
that the light-brown oil was the most healthy. He attributed this superiority to the larger
quantities of iodine, phosphate of chalk and volatile acids found in it.
In 1846, de Jongh traveled to Norway to obtain the purest oil available. By the 1850s,
‘Dr. de Jong’s Light Brown Cod Liver Oil’ was marketed throughout Europe and
exported to
the United States. Each bottle had de Jongh’s signature and stamped seal
on it
– a blue codfish on a red shield – guaranteeing that the product was ‘put to the test
of chemical analysis’. Advertising emphasized de Jongh’s
credentials as a doctor and
chemist, and included testimonials from other men of science and medicine.
However, even the most enthusiastic supporters of cod liver oil admitted that the highly
disagreeable taste and smell presented a significant obstacle to its use. De Jongh
believed the pr
oblem of the oil’s unpleasant taste and smell could be overcome with a
little perseverance or, failing that, by following it with some fruit or biscuit, or glass of
wine. But his recommendations appear not to have worked well. It was
often combined
with coffee, although a few people recommended taking the oil with tomato ketchup.
In 1873, Alfred B. Scott came to New York and, along with partner Samuel W. Bowne,
began experimenting to produce a more pleasant preparation of cod liver. Three years
later they established the firm of Scott and Bowne, and began marketing their product
as Scott’s Emulsion. Though not a doctor or pharmacist by training, Scott had the eye
for opportunity that was necessary for achievement in business. Advertising, the two
men believed, would propel their product to success. And so it did: by the 1890s Scott
and Bowne had factories in five European countries, and were
selling their emulsion
throughout the Americas, Europe and Asia.
Scott got his oil for Scott’s Emulsion directly from the Lofoten Islands in Norway, the
world center of cod fishery
– located above the Arctic Circle. The codfish streamed to
the islands in early January to lay their eggs, and by the end of April were gone. The
Gulf Stream, the Arctic waters, and the Norwegian fjords combined to create a perfect
breeding group for the codfish and an unequaled fishing industry for the fishermen.
Scott and Bowne’s first trademark, registered in 1879, included the initials P.P.P. and
three words
– ‘Perfect, Permanent, Palatable’. The mark reflected that Scott’s
Emulsion
was a perfect formula, a permanent emulsion (that is, one in which the ingredients
DAY 1
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would not separate), and most importantly, that it had a pleasant taste. ‘Palatable as
milk
’ became a key phrase in Scott’s advertising.
A man with a fish on his back first appeared on Scott’s Emulsion around 1884 and
became Scott and Bowne’s trademark in 1890. As Scott told it, he saw this fisherman
with his record-breaking catch while on business in Norway. A photographer was
quickly found to record the scene. Later, the photo was faithfully reproduced as a
drawing, and registered as the company’s trademark.
In the drawing, the man stoops
forward, glances out from under the brim of his hat, legs tensed under the weight of his
load. A thick rope, wrapped round his waist, shoulders and hands, secures the load on
his back
– a huge fish with gaping mouth and glassy yellow eye, its tail sweeping the
floor. The common codfish is recognizable by the brown and amber spots all over its
body,
the light stripe down its side, and the three dorsal fins. The words ‘SCOTT’S
EMULSION’ appear in the tittle of the picture.
Trade cards and booklets featured the fisherman and his
catch along with the words
‘Scene taken from life on the coast of Norway’ and ‘The Codfish, weighing 156 pounds,
was caught off the coast of Norway’. The realistic image, a direct reference to the
natural source of the medicine, served as a reassurance of quality in a market that
contained some impure, unsafe products.
By the 1900s, ‘the man with the fish’ was famous. His imaged appeared on countless
boxes and bottles of a cod-liver-oil preparation. It was printed in full colour on
advertising trade cards, booklets, and posters distributed around the globe, and in one
instance painted several stories high on the side of a building. The man with the fish
endures today, a testament to the persistence of an age-old tradition, even as
scientific
and commercial interest in cod liver oil has risen and fallen.