Imagining the Turkish nation through
‘othering’ Armenians
n
AYLA GO¨L
Department of International Relations, The London School of Economics and
Political Science, Houghton Street, London WC2A 2AE, UK
ABSTRACT. National identities are socially constructed and inherently relational,
such that collective imagination depends on a dialectical opposition to another
identity. The ontology of otherness becomes the necessary basis of social imagination.
National identity can hardly be imagined without a narrative of myths, and the
Turkish nation is no exception. This article argues that the Turkish nation was
imagined
as a modern nation with territorial sovereignty after the erosion of traditional
Ottoman umma (religious community) identity. During the process of this imagination,
the Armenians became the first ‘others’, whose claims over eastern Anatolia were
perceived as a real threat to Turkish territoriality and identity. Based on the analysis of
modernist theories of nationalism, the methodological concern of this study is twofold:
to explore the causal link between the policies of Ottoman modernisation and the
emergence of Turkish nationalism; and to incorporate the self and other nexus into the
relationship between the emergence of Turkish nationalism and the process of
‘othering’ the Armenians.
Introduction
Every nation claims to be unique and to have a different identity from others.
National identity can hardly be imagined without a narrative of myths, and
the Turkish nation is no exception. The homogeneity of a nation is itself a
myth that becomes the basis of many nationalist ideologies. Challenging these
myths requires a critical approach to understanding history and nationalism.
The past we accept as an integral part of our social memories and collective
identities is subjective and selective in accordance with the requirements of
nationalist ideologies. The theoretical departure point of this article is that
national identities are socially constructed and inherently relational, such that
collective imagination depends on a dialectical opposition to another identity.
The ontology of otherness becomes the necessary basis of social imagination.
Nations and Nationalism 11 (1), 2005, 121–139. r ASEN 2005
n
A different version of this article was presented at a seminar in the Department of International
Relations, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, where I
was the inaugural John Vincent Fellow in 2003. I wish to thank Heather Rae, Chris Reus-Smit,
Razmik Panossian, Paul Keal, Sarah Graham, Shogo Suzuki, Hakan Sec¸kinelgin, G ¨ul Tokay and
the anonymous referees for their comments and contributions.
This article argues that the Turkish nation was imagined as a modern
nation with territorial sovereignty after the erosion of traditional Ottoman
umma
(religious community) identity. During the process of this imagination,
the Armenians became the first ‘others’, whose claims over eastern Anatolia
were perceived as a real threat to Turkish territoriality and identity. Such an
argument challenges one of the historical myths of official Turkish national-
ism which argues that the Turkish national consciousness emerged during its
struggle against the Greek invasion of western Anatolia, which caused the
Greeks to be considered as the ‘other’.
Official Turkish historiography and nationalism have been challenged by a
number of ‘revisionist’ scholars since the 1980s (Berktay 1983; Ortayli 1983;
Deringil 1993; Timur 1994; Kadiog˘lu 1996; Akc¸am 1994 and 1999; Heper
2001; Canefe 2002; Go¨c¸ek 2002; Kasaba 2002). These scholars started a new
debate to challenge official nationalism and its engagement with ‘politically
correct history’, which implies the rejection of the Ottoman past and its
selective explanation of Turkish nation-building. The revisionist school
emphasised not only historical continuity between Turkish nationalists under
the leadership of Mustafa Kemal and the Young Turks in pursuing the goals
of nationalist ideology, but also societal factors that contributed towards the
emergence of Turkish nationalism. Revisionists argued that the Ottoman
Empire’s transition to a modern Turkish nation-state should be identified as
‘Turkish nationalism or revolution’, rather than ‘Atat ¨urk nationalism or
revolution’. This differentiation emphasises the fact that the ideology of
Turkish nationalism was originally developed by Namik Kemal, Ziya Go¨kalp
and Yusuf Akc¸ura, whereas Atat ¨urk nationalism presents itself solely as a
product of Mustafa Kemal’s determination to lead Turks to a national
independence movement and denies its connections with the Ottoman past.
Revisionists challenged various aspects of orthodox Turkish historiogra-
phy on the following issues: the continuity and change between Ottoman and
Turkish policies (Ortayli 1983; Timur 1994; Deringil 1993; Heper 2001), the
question of the Armenian genocide (Akc¸am 1999; Berktay 1983); the ethnic
origins of the Turkish nation (Canafe 2002; Kasaba 2002) and the construc-
tion of official Turkish identity (Kadiog˘lu 1996). This article aims to
contribute to the ongoing debate by analysing the role Armenians played
within Turkish nation-building. There are two premises to be explored in
supporting the novel interpretation of Turkish nationalism. The first premise
is that the emergence of Turkish nationalism can be more accurately explained
by modernist theories of nationalism – based on the work of Benedict
Anderson, John Breuilly, Ernest Gellner, John Hall and Elie Kedourie –
which establish the causal link between Ottoman modernisation and Turkish
nationalism in order to explain the transition from an Islamic identity to a
secular one. The second premise is that Armenians became the first ‘other’
during the construction of the Turkish nation. The relationship between the
creation of a homogenous Turkish nation-state in Anatolia and Armenian
claims to have a historic homeland over the same territory will be analysed to
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Ayla Go¨l
find out what constituted the otherness of the Armenians. While the first part
of this article offers a theoretically and historically informed analysis of
Turkish nationalism, the second part critically examines the role of Arme-
nians during the social construction of the Turkish nation.
The modernity of Turkish nationalism and the nation
Given that there is a vast amount of literature on nationalism it would be
misleading to make generalisations on different theories of nationalism such
as modernism, primordialism/perennialism and ethno-symbolism. They may
share many basic assumptions but there can be as much diversity among
scholars in each approach as there is between these various theoretical
schools. Although each modernist scholar’s approach reflects different causal
explanations, they all conceive of nationalism as a political and ideological
movement and a by-product of modernity. There are also two contradictory
explanations of how the relationship between nationalism and modernity
came into existence. On the one hand, most modernist scholars argue that
nationalism was, originally, an unintended consequence of modernity. In this
understanding, nationalism is closely related to the major developments of the
modern epoch such as industrialisation, print capitalism, literacy, urbanisa-
tion and social transformations (Gellner 1994; Anderson 1991; Breuilly 1996;
Hobsbawm 1990). Liah Greenfeld’s analysis of English, French, Russian,
German and American nationalisms not only challenges the commonly
assumed links between modernisation and nationalism by seeing modernity
as defined by nationalism but also explains how these nationalisms derived
their particular characters from identity crises during the process of moder-
nisation (Greenfeld 1995). On the other hand, the modernity of nationalism
has not been accepted by all scholars. Anthony Smith, one of the leading
scholars of ethno-symbolism, does not define nationalism through its mod-
ernity. However, Smith makes some contradictory points about the relation-
ship between the two phenomena since he also argues that nationalism acts
‘like a prism’ through which some of the historical continuities and the
transformations of modernity are preserved in new changed forms (Smith
1998: 44). Thus, most theories of nationalism clearly differ over not only the
relationship between modernity and nationalism but also the causes of
nationalism.
The modernists argue that there are three main causes behind the reality of
nationalism: the psychological losses of identity caused by the erosion of
tradition; the needs of modernisation and industrialisation; and the develop-
ment of communication and print capitalism. The site of investigation for
modernists encompasses the economic, political and ideological levels within
the social formation of each national ideology. Furthermore, they suggest that
there is no single, universal theory of nationalism through which to under-
stand every single case in world history (Hall 1995: 8; Waldron 1985: 420). For
The Turkish nation and ‘othering’ Armenians
123
the most part, they accept nationalism as an ideology; a modern phenomenon
to create a collective identity; an example of social and political engineering,
which constructs a powerless and unreal ‘imagined community’ through the
agency of a nation-state. I claim that modernist theory provides a better
explanatory framework for the understanding of Turkish nationalism for the
following three reasons: the need to belong to a separate Turkish nation was
the result of the erosion of the traditional Ottoman identity; the emergence of
Turkish nationalism coincided with the need for modernisation in the Otto-
man Empire; and a separate Turkish national consciousness gradually
developed in parallel with the use of print capitalism as part of modernisation
policies. I will now turn to explain each reason in detail.
The erosion of the traditional Ottoman identity
Historically, the traditional Ottoman identity was based on the millet
(religious community) system, characterised by the religious autonomy of
different groups rather than ethnic ties or language.
1
Each religious group was
allowed free practice of its religion. Within this system, there was differentia-
tion between Muslim (Turks, Kurds, Arabs) and non-Muslim millets (Chris-
tians – Greeks and Armenians – and Jews) of the Empire but no official
differentiation among the Muslim millet by ethnicity or language. The number
of millets changed throughout Ottoman history. New millets were created as a
consequence of pressure from the European great powers. For instance, while
there were nine recognised millets, of which six were fairly large in 1875, there
were seventeen in 1914 (Karpat 1973: 88–97).
For Muslim millets, the religious character of the Ottoman state meant that
the primary mark of self-identification was umma as the great community of
believers. Islam as a proselytising religion that claims universal validity is not
compatible with the local and inward-looking character of ethnic identities.
Hence, Islam was a stronger unifying force than ethnic ties in the definition of
the traditional Ottoman identity. Ethnicity was an alien concept and, thus,
not a determining factor per se in defining Turkish identity (Heper 2001: 4).
Moreover, ethnicity as the basis of nationalist ideology cannot explain how
institutions such as the church or a dynasty play a major role in developing a
modern national identity. These issues are crucial in exploring why nation-
alism emerged first among the non-Muslim millets of the Ottoman Empire
and why it was delayed for Muslim millets. When the Empire abandoned its
Islamic proselytising mission in its European territories formal regional
autonomy was allowed to Christian churches, which became natural institu-
tional vehicles for autonomist movements in the nineteenth century (Breuilly
1996: 151–3). Religious sentiments were deliberately used by Christian
churches to create Balkan (Bulgarian, Serbian, Greek) and Armenian national
movements; however, Muslim millets did not have similar means to develop a
separate nationalism since there is no institutional equivalent of the church in
Islam.
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In addition to these institutional disadvantages, the idea of being a ‘Turk’
was also an alien concept to the Ottoman elite, who saw themselves as
Osmanl{lar
(Ottomans) rather than Turks until the end of the Empire.
2
The
name of the state was Osmanl{ Devleti (the Ottoman state) and it was insulting
to refer to the Ottomans as Turks, since the Turks were regarded as
uneducated Anatolian peasants within the Empire. The state language was
Osmanl{ca
(Ottoman language), which was a mixture of Turkish, Arabic and
Persian. Turkish was the local language of Anatolian peasants whereas Arabic
was the sacred language of the ulema (Muslim clergy). Even those who spoke
Turkish did not identify themselves as Turks and almost never used the term
consciously until the beginning of the twentieth century (G ¨uvenc¸ 1994: 22–3).
However, there has been a tendency among Western scholars to use the
geographical term ‘Turkey’ in referring both to the state identity of the
Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic. Ottoman and Turk are not the
same political identities. The equation of these two terms became apparent
only when Turkish nationalism emerged in the twentieth century (Smith 1971:
56). The dual usage creates confusion about the political identity of the
modern Turkish state and nation. If we accept Ottoman and Turk as the same
identity, the process of transition from an Islamic empire and umma identity
to a modern state and secular identity is obscured, leaving us with an
incomplete understanding of Turkish history and nationalism.
The traditional Ottoman identity on both state and societal levels was
eroded by the collapse of the Empire. Turkish nationalism emerged in parallel
to the idea of constructing a new political identity represented by a modern
nation-state. This development did not materialise in tabula rasa as a sudden
consequence of socio-political circumstances brought by World War I. It was
a result of a long historical process that was based on the Ottoman
modernisation and socialisation within the European state system. After the
first major defeat of the Ottoman Empire by the Christian powers at
Carlowitz in 1699 the Ottomans were the first to acknowledge the fact that
Muslims might learn from the previously despised infidel, which prompted
military modernisation and the Empire’s socialisation in the 1700s and 1800s.
Despite the early attempts of the Ottoman Sultans to catch up with more
advanced European military technology, Selim III (1789–1807) and Mahmud
II (1808–39) were the first genuine reformers. The military ambitions of Selim
III initiated the political modernisation of the Empire, which had progressed
through four historical phases: the first period (1789–1836) was characterised
by the era of military and administrative reforms that reached its peak when
Nizam-i Cedit
(New Army) replaced the army of Janissaries in 1826 (Ahmad
1993: 4). The second historical period (1839–65) was the era of the Tanzimat
(the political reforms). The movement of Genc¸ Osmanl{lar (the Young Otto-
mans) presented the third historical phase of modernisation (1865–76) and its
final stage between 1908 and 1918 was characterised by the revolutionary
Genc¸ T ¨urkler (the Young Turks), who not only overthrew the absolutist
Abdulhamid regime (1876–1909) but also became the forefathers of subse-
The Turkish nation and ‘othering’ Armenians
125
quent Turkish nationalists. During this long historical process, modernisation
policies gradually brought about the Empire’s disintegration and paradoxically
contributed to the emergence of Turkish nationalism, which brought the
Empire’s end with the declaration of the Turkish Republic as a modern
nation-state in 1923. Thus, although the whole process of the Ottoman
modernisation spanned almost two centuries, the emergence of Turkish
nationalism was specific to the twentieth century as a modern political ideology.
It is the task of the next section to explain this relationship.
The paradoxical relationship between Ottoman modernisation and Turkish
nationalism
The Turkish experience in constructing a nation-state has been accepted by
both Turkish and Western scholars as a good example of modernisation
theory (see Kili 1995; Mardin 1991; Ward and Rustow 1964). In one of his last
books Ernest Gellner argued that Turkey deserves the special attention of
anyone who is interested in the future of liberal societies, economic develop-
ment and Islam. Among the Asian states, Japan, India and Turkey, with their
success in constitutionalism and democratic elections, provide grounds for
optimism for Western liberals. Within this trio Turkey stands out in several
important aspects: Turkey was the first state to embark on the road to
building a constitutional government despite its Islamic character. Gellner
furthermore argued that Turkey’s commitment to modern political ideas was
a result of an endogenous development, rather than being an exogenous
imposition. Turkey was never colonised and Turkish nationalists achieved
political modernity by choosing their own destiny. Yet, there is a dilemma
arising from Gellner’s analysis, because he argued that Turkish commitment
to modernisation of the polity and society had both an Ottoman and Islamic
quality (Gellner 1994: 81–3). It leaves open the question why Turkish
nationalists preferred the Western type of modernisation and the construction
of a modern nation, to the Ottoman system and the religious communities of
Islam.
This point can be addressed in the following way: the Turkish nationalists’
commitment to modernisation was based on an oppositional relationship with
their predecessors. Although there was a historical continuity between the
modernisation attempts of the Young Ottomans, the Young Turks and the
nationalists, Turkish and Ottoman modernisers operated differently. While it
was inevitable that Ottoman modernisation adopted some aspects of the
Western experience, Turkish modernisation was by definition opposed to the
Ottoman-Islamic experience and accepted Westernisation as a totality. With
the emergence of Turkish nationalism, the modern Turkish nation’s past was
Ottoman and Islamic, but its future was secular and European. Turkish
nationalism successfully cut its ties with the Ottoman past but it was not easy
to change the Islamic character of the Empire. This is probably why Gellner
emphasised the Ottoman and Islamic character of Turkish modernisation. I
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Ayla Go¨l
challenge Gellner’s conclusion on two grounds: first, the Turkish nationalists
aimed to have a clear-cut break with the Islamic character of the Ottoman
state and change it in accordance with the secular character of European
states. Second, although Turkish modernisation was not only a result of
internal developments, Gellner downplays the role of external factors such as
pressures from European powers on the Empire. The Turkish nationalist
elite’s commitment to modernisation was a consequence of both internal and
external developments. The emphasis on the role of external factors helps us
to understand the relationship between the policies of Ottoman modernisation
and the emergence of Turkish nationalism.
As explained earlier, after the first Ottoman defeat in 1699 policies for the
modernisation of the Empire were intended to be limited to military reform
with the primary purpose of strengthening state power. However, military
technology gradually required the importing of other ‘infidel’ developments
and ideas by the beginning of the eighteenth century. For instance, the first
printing press of the Muslim millets was established by Ibrahim Muteferrika
in 1729 (Lewis 2002: 28). The press was closed in 1742 until it resumed
printing in 1784 by the order (ferman) of the Sultan Abdul Hamid I (1774–89).
Its publications covered fields such as Ottoman history, geography and
language. After Sultan Selim III took power a state-sponsored printing press
was opened in 1795 in conjunction with other reform policies. Nevertheless it
was clear that the limited military and technological reforms were not enough
to prevent the decline of the Empire with its anachronistic socio-political
institutions. In seeking to modernise the Empire neither Sultan Selim III nor
Mahmud II anticipated the spread of Enlightenment ideas and the rise of
nationalism within the Empire. In fact, Mahmud II’s reforms signalled the
beginning of the decay of the millet system that he had promoted to recognise
the certain fundamental rights and freedoms of his subjects, which were
partially accomplished by the imperial decrees of 1839, 1856 and the 1876
Constitution (Ahmad 2003: 33–7).
Throughout the nineteenth century, the forces of nationalism slowly
infiltrated the Empire’s millet system in conjunction with the forces of
modernisation. A key document in this process was the G ¨ulhane Hatt-{
H ¨umayunu (Imperial Degree of the Rose-Chamber) of 1839, marking the
beginning of the Tanzimat era in Ottoman history. After the signing of the
Treaty of Paris in 1856, external pressures from European states to modernise
the Ottoman system speeded up the rise of nationalism within the millet
system. It was after this treaty that the Ottoman government – Bab-{ Ali (The
Sublime Porte) – was forced to develop closer economic, political and
ideological relations with the European states in order to preserve the
Empire’s status quo in the international system. In particular, the Ottomans
accepted the three main demands of the European states. First, the Treaty of
Paris forced the Sublime Porte to repudiate the Islamic character of the state.
Second, the Sublime Porte had to accept modern arguments on the principle
of nationality, or of national self-determination. Third, if the Empire wanted
The Turkish nation and ‘othering’ Armenians
127
to be part of the European state system on equal terms, it was under pressure
to observe European international law (Davison 1986: 56–9). The Islahat
Ferman{
(Reform Decree) of 1856 was a reflection of these external pressures
in domestic politics. The document emphasised full equality for all subjects
(Kedourie 1992: 37; Matran 1995: 110–13). ‘Surely, the Ottomans did not
offer equal rights to their subjects – a meaningless anachronism in the context
of that time and place. They did however offer a degree of tolerance without
precedent or parallel in Christian Europe’ (Lewis 2002: 33). The Ottomans
accepted these requirements in order to modernise the Empire and become an
equal member of the European system. Paradoxically, these attempts in return
put the Empire’s integrity in danger by contributing towards the disintegra-
tion of its millet system. An analysis of the development of print capitalism
helps us to understand the last causal link between Ottoman modernisation
and the emergence of nationalism.
The development of print capitalism and national self-consciousness
As part of modernisation policies, the use of print capitalism and a
standardised language played a crucial role in the emergence of nationalism
within the Ottoman Empire. Printing was first permitted for the non-Muslim
millets
in Hebrew, Greek, Armenian or other European languages, mainly
French. The Greeks were the first non-Muslims to enjoy the benefits of
publishing and teaching in their own language (Kitromilides 1990: 27–8).
Although most Greek texts were about religious issues at the beginning of the
nineteenth century the ideas of the French Revolution changed the agenda of
the Greek print media by drawing attention to secular issues. Through the
circulation of the discussions about the Balkan Christians’ right to liberty and
the visions of an independent Greek nation it became possible to foster a
movement toward independence from the authoritarian Ottoman rule. The
Greek independence of 1832 served as an example for the Ottoman Arme-
nians, who were also allowed to use their language in the print media earlier
on.
The first official newspaper of the Ottoman Empire, Le Moniteur Ottoman,
in 1832 had a section in Armenian language (Go¨c¸ek 2002: 42). Hayastan (the
homeland of the Armenians), the Armenian newspaper in Istanbul, was an
influential channel in setting the ideological parameters of Armenian nation-
alism, which called for the Armenian nation to wake up and follow the
examples of other enlightened nations in the 1840s (Libaridian 1983: 76). In
addition, the Armenians had another advantage that Anatolian Turkish
peasants did not have: many Ottoman Armenians were prosperous enough
to send their children to Europe for religious and secular education. Armenian
students in St Petersburg and Moscow produced and distributed brochures
about the success of the Greek and Bulgarian revolutions to gain political
independence from the Ottomans. The spread of these ideas bore fruit and
Armenian revolutionary discourse and activity spread between the 1860s
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and 1890s (Nalbandian 1963: 140–1). These internal developments were
interwoven with the pressures from European powers on the Empire’s
modernisation and the liberal policies of the Tanzimat era, as explained
earlier.
Not surprisingly, opposition to the Tanzimat era came from the Young
Ottomans, who perceived the reforms as a direct threat to the integrity of the
Empire. For the first time they emphasised the importance of mobilising the
‘Ottomans’ as a conscious group and the use of print media as a means of
spreading their ideology (Mardin 1991: 89). A real shift in policy away from
the Tanzimat ideas occurred when Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1876–1909) took
power and prioritised the policy of pan-Islamism – favouring Islam at the
expense of the Empire’s other religious communities – over Westernisation, as
a reaction to the pressures from European powers, which was intended to
preserve the Empire’s integrity (Landau 1994: 9–10). Despite its authoritarian
character, this era witnessed the declaration of the first constitution in 1876,
another key document in the modernisation of the Empire, and accepted
Turkish as the official language of the state for the first time in Ottoman
history (Deringil 1993: 167). Within this context, the concept of Turkism did
not have any connotation in a modern sense but was seen as compatible with
the concepts of Ottomanism and Islamism.
The Young Ottomans had an important impact on another group, the
Young Turks, who were the forefathers of Turkish nationalists in the
twentieth century. The new alternative of a Turkish national consciousness
as opposed to the Ottoman traditional identity became widespread after the
Young Turk Revolution of 1908 (Trimberger 1978: 86). The Young Turks’
movement accelerated the collapse of the Ottoman Empire by intruducing the
ideology of nationalism to Muslim millets in Anatolia. The Committee of
Union and Progress (CUP), the political organ of the Young Turk movement,
in particular realised the importance of print capitalism and standardised
language. In 1911, the CUP decided to employ the Turkish language in all the
schools of the Empire, with the aim to ‘denationalise all the non-Turkish
communities and instil patriotism among the Turks’ (Go¨c¸ek 2002: 43). The
reformation of the state schooling system and of language by the compulsory
use of demotic Turkish aimed for the linguistic homogenisation of society.
Similarly, the importance of language to produce new meanings and visions of
a modern nation would be recognised by the Kemalist nationalism later in
1928 through the replacement of the Arabic alphabet with the Latin.
3
Clearly,
the standardisation of Turkish language aimed to sever the link with the
Ottoman language and past in order to create a new sense of Turkish
nationhood. During this process, the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 played a
crucial role in the emergence of a new sense of territoriality and identity. The
Balkans were the first geographic region where the Ottomans lost both
territories in Europe and this, in addition to its multi-religious character,
created a trauma leading to a deeper preoccupation with the survival of the
state in Anatolian heartland (Bora 1995: 104). The Young Turks’ focus was
The Turkish nation and ‘othering’ Armenians
129
on the Anatolian territory as the basis of a national consciousness yet the
nation was not yet described as Turkish.
The CUP government’s reaction to the loss of the Balkan territories was a
formulation of drastic policies that combined their enlightened authoritarianism
with ‘chauvinist nationalism’. The CUP leadership was the first group to
implement policies of ‘homogenisation and Turkification’ which were reinforced
by the conditions of World War I (Rae 2002: 151–3). The first implementation
of the CUP regime’s goal of creating a homogeneous nation was the elimination
of the Armenians from Anatolia in 1915. The Armenians were accused of
collaborating with the Russians against the Ottomans despite the fact that they
were called the millet-i sad{ka (the most loyal subjects) of the Empire. It was a
prerequisite for homogenisation in the name of modernisation that both internal
and external conditions served to justify their policies under the rhetoric of state
security and interests. The question that automatically comes to mind concerns
the reason for the change in the perception of the Armenians from being loyal
millet
to being subjected to the policies of elimination by the Young Turks, as
will be dealt with in the second part of this article.
Although the CUP regime set the stage for the creation of a homogeneous
Turkish nation, it could not complete the transformation from an Islamic
empire to a secular nation-state. After World War I, the nationalist group
under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atat ¨urk eventually ‘brought the
process of nation-state building to a logical end, having also profited from the
mistakes of their predecessors’ (Mardin 1991: 201). On the leadership level,
the new nationalists emerged from the intellectual cadres of the Young Turks
and inherited the modernised Ottoman institutions such as the parliament,
political parties and the print media (Ortayli 1983: 183). The nationalists
made a radical break from their predecessors on the definition of the national
project, which led to the complete rejection of the Empire as a political entity.
Priority in the national project was given to two areas: the definition
of a territorial state and the creation of a homogenised Turkish nation.
When Ottoman territory was under Allied occupation in 1918 the main
question for the Anatolian people to solve was what should be done after its
final disintegration. Specifically, Ottoman territory encompassed various
cultural and religious groups in the Balkans, Anatolia and the Middle
East and the emergence of more than one new nation-state was almost
inevitable. As the Balkan peoples in Europe and the Arabs in the Middle East
chose to decide their own destiny separately, the Ottoman territory in
Anatolia became the major arena of struggle among its inhabitants: mainly
Turks, Kurds, Armenians and Greeks. The Turkish national movement was
opposed to the various claims of these others on Anatolian territory. Despite
the cultural and linguistic differences, the religious tie between Turks
and Kurds, that is Islam, united them against the ‘others’ – the Armenians
and the Greeks.
According to official Turkish nationalism, the invasion of western Anatolia
by Allied and Greek forces in 1918–19 created an urgent need for a raison
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d’eˆtre
of the state. In particular, the occupation of Izmir (Smyrna) by the
Greek forces on 15 May 1919 triggered a Turkish resistance in Anatolia
(Atat ¨urk 1929: 1). The day on which Mustafa Kemal landed at Samsun, 19
May 1919, has come to be understood as the starting date of the national
movement. In contrast to this orthodox account of the factors which are
related to the rise of Turkish nationalism, I argue that the threat of an
extended Armenian state in eastern Anatolia united the Turks to act as a
national group. The subsequent part of this article critically explores the
reasons that led to the policies of exclusion and, thus, changed the perception
of the Armenians from being ‘loyal millets’ to the ‘others’ in Ottoman/Turkish
social history.
‘Othering’ the Armenians during the social construction of the Turkish nation
The process of ‘othering’ the Armenians was a result of three historical
factors, which were also connected to the relationship between modernisation
and nationalism. First, the early development of Armenian nationalism:
the Ottoman Armenians developed a strong national consciousness through
the channels of church and standardised language, as explained in regard to
the use of print capitalism in the nineteenth century. Under the new policies of
modernisation, they demanded more socio-political rights and to be regarded
as equal subjects of the Empire, which was not acceptable to the Ottoman
ruling elite. The Armenians were not equal to Muslim millets and had always
been considered as the others.
Second, the European intervention in Ottoman domestic politics on behalf
of Christian minorities, as the Empire became weaker: the refusal of
Armenian demands gave legitimacy to Western interference in Ottoman
internal affairs during the modernisation period. The Ottoman elite was
suspicious of European pressures to the extent that they actually intended to
weaken the authority of the Sultan and the sovereignty of the Empire. Great
power interventions had helped the Greeks to gain independence, and this had
to be prevented in the case of the Ottoman Armenians.
Third, the demographic and geopolitical composition of the Armenians led
to their ‘othering’: historically, the Armenians were a divided people by a
divided land during the rule of the Persian, Russian and Ottoman Empires
(Nalbandian 1963: 2–3). After the Ottomans lost the districts of Kars,
Ardahan and Batum (Elviye-i Selase) to the Russians in the war of 1877–78
the Ottoman–Armenian frontier remained the main bone of contention. The
Armenian claims that the six Ottoman provinces – Erzurum, Van, Bitlis,
Diyarbekir, Harput, Sivas – which had been named ‘Turkish Armenia’ by the
Armenians and the Europeans, constitute an important part of the historic
homeland and further complicated the dispute between Turkish and Arme-
nian nationalists in post-Ottoman politics (Kurat 1990: 203–4; Hovannisian
1971: 447). While the Armenian elite regarded the unification of Ottoman and
The Turkish nation and ‘othering’ Armenians
131
Russian Armenians as a necessary condition for the creation of a united
identity, their Turkish counterparts perceived this as an actual threat to their
own interests. Consequently, Turkish nationalists prioritised two tasks of
creating a homogenous nation-state in order to tackle the ‘Armenian ques-
tion’: to declare Anatolia as the Turkish homeland, which clashed with
Armenian territorial claims, and to gain the international recognition of
Turkish sovereignty over this territory.
The clash of Turkish–Armenian territorial claims over Eastern Anatolia
Turkish nationalists took advantage of the establishment of an independent
Armenian state in the South Caucasus (Russian Armenia) in May 1918 and
regarded this new state as the representative of Armenian identity and
interests. The crucial issue to begin with was the territorial dispute between
the two sides. In June 1918, the Batum Agreement determined the Turkish–
Armenian border to be that of the former Ottoman–Russian border of 1877–
78 and the Armenian government in Erivan renounced claims to the six
Ottoman provinces in Eastern Anatolia. As soon as the Ottomans signed the
Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918 the Erivan government repudiated
the Batum Agreement and resumed their demands for Ottoman Armenia
(Kazemzadeh 1951: 286; Kurat 1990: 477). For the Armenian leaders, the
security and survival of the new Armenian Republic could not be achieved
without regaining ‘Turkish Armenia’.
Almost at the same time as the Greek invasion, on 28 May 1919, the Erivan
government passed the Act of United Armenia, which claimed national
restoration by uniting the two parts of ‘historic Armenia’ (PRO: Archival
Research).
4
The Armenian leaders knew that immediate unification was
impossible, but they used the Act as a legal basis for making representations
on behalf of an integrated Armenia and the diaspora (Hovannisian 1982: 1).
The consequences of the Act were not foreseen. Its aim of creating a combined
independent political Armenian identity failed, and it led to a drastic reaction
by the Turkish nationalists. The Kemalist leadership regarded the annexation
of Turkish Armenia as a declaration of war and claimed that the Turkish
national integrity was inconceivable without the six Ottoman provinces in
eastern Anatolia (Kazemzadeh 1951: 286). This reactionary policy was further
reinforced by the internal and external developments of Turkish nationalist
policies in 1920.
In internal affairs, priority was given to the establishment of a national
authority in Anatolia. Two important events had a direct impact on this
development: the declaration of a National Pact (Misak-{ Milli) and the
occupation of Istanbul by the Allies. First, the Turkish National pact
expressed the determination of the Kemalist group to regain the full national
integrity and independence of the Turkish people. The pact clearly spelled out
five major goals: to liberate Ottoman territory from foreign invasion; to unite
Elviye-i Selase
(Kars, Ardahan and Batum) with the Turkish homeland; to
132
Ayla Go¨l
gain control of Istanbul; to protect the rights of Muslim minorities in
neighbouring states; and to secure the complete sovereignty of the country.
It not only became a key document of modern Turkish history but also laid
the basis of nationalist foreign policy, which would soon be directed against
the Armenians.
Second, the Allied occupation of Istanbul on 16 March 1920 constituted a
fatal blow to Ottoman sovereignty and became a catalyst for the establish-
ment of a national assembly in Ankara. The Grand National Assembly
(GNA), declaring the establishment of the Ankara government, was opened
on 23 April 1920. The GNA declared itself to hold legislative and executive
power, based on the sovereignty of the Turkish people, stating that there was
no power above the Ankara government (Atat ¨urk 1929: 380). The crucial test
for the replacement of the Istanbul government by the Ankara government
would take place in the realm of foreign relations, given the importance of
international recognition to both statehood and the legitimacy of a govern-
ment. When the Allies signed the Treaty of Se`vres with the Istanbul
government on 20 August 1920 it was clear that they did not recognise the
Ankara government. Consequently, the nationalists were determined not only
to take over the Istanbul government’s exercise of power in foreign affairs but
also to prove to the Allies and the protectorate Armenians that there was no
possibility of a united Armenia.
I maintain that the Treaty of Se`vres served as a catalyst for Turkish
nationalism by uniting the Muslim peoples of Anatolia to act as a national
group under the leadership of the Kemalists. The treaty was also described as
the origin of Turkish nationalism
in a British Foreign Office report, indicating
that foreign observers understood that the European decision over the future
of Anatolia at Se`vres escalated the nationalist feelings among Turks (PRO:
Archival Research).
5
Therefore, the European-backed territorial claims of the
Armenians over eastern Anatolia played a more determining role than the
Greek invasion of Izmir in the development of a raison d’eˆtre of the new
Turkish state.
One methodological concern at this juncture of my analysis is how to
incorporate the self and other nexus into the relationship between the
emergence of Turkish nationalism and the process of ‘othering’ the Arme-
nians. As explained earlier, the Kemalist leadership was determined to
establish a nation-state based on the existing European model, in which the
state and its borders have two main functions: first, the clear definition of
boundaries helps to create a homogeneous imagined community within the
territorial state. In this understanding, nationhood and statehood are defined
territorially since political identity crystallises around borders as well as
transcends them. Second, the nation-state has the power to secure its national
identity by recognising the other, so as to be constituted and recognised itself
as a political entity at the same time. I argue that the Turkish nationalist
leaders chose the Armenians as the ‘other’ both to claim Turkish sovereignty
over the proclaimed Anatolian territory and also to be recognised as the
The Turkish nation and ‘othering’ Armenians
133
legitimate authority by the ‘other’ in order to secure the new Turkish national
identity. Indeed, Turkey is a good example of the process of constructing
nationhood through delineating the state’s territorial borders, with homo-
genising space and population as an integral part of defining a unified political
identity. However, the meaning of Turkish nation itself was vague and needed
to be defined on behalf of the Muslim subjects of the Empire in Anatolia. On
the one hand, it was accepted that ‘a ‘‘Turk’’ could be anyone who belonged
to the Muslim umma during the Ottoman time’ (Karpat 1973: 100). On the
other hand, one was accepted as a Turk as long as one called himself/herself a
Turk within the boundaries of the sovereign secular state. Hence, the
definition of the new state’s boundaries became crucial where the claims of
Turkish and Armenian homelands clashed.
This is why I maintain that the indirect occupation of eastern Anatolia by
the Armenians through the articles of the Treaty of Se`vres was a key factor for
Turkish nationalism: the establishment of a united Armenia posed a direct
threat to the integrity of Turkish territory and identity. While the Armenian
demands were satisfied by the stillborn Treaty of Se`vres, which in principle
gave Armenia a large part of north-eastern Anatolia (the boundaries would be
drawn by President Wilson), this in return reinforced Turkish nationalist
feelings. Turkish policy towards Armenia from that time on would be based
on the rejection of ceding any Turkish soil to the Armenians (Akc¸am 1999:
499). It also served to strengthen Turkish national consciousness by allowing
Turks to differentiate themselves from the Armenians. There was no place for
the Armenians in the new Turkish nation, defined in territorial and religious
terms. The crucial stage of invalidating the Armenian claims was to gain
international recognition of Turkish sovereignty in Anatolia and, therefore,
priority was given to foreign affairs.
The recognition of Turkish sovereignty in Anatolia
The nationalist leaders designed a dual policy to assert their sovereignty in
foreign affairs, and also to solve the ‘Armenian question’. On the one hand,
they established diplomatic relations with the Bolsheviks to decide on the
border between the two new regimes in eastern Anatolia; on the other hand,
they pursued a military campaign against the Armenians in order to force
them to reject the Treaty of Se`vres. Hence, the treaty became a catalyst not
only for Turkish nationalism but also for the Turkish–Bolshevik rapproche-
ment in 1920–21, which brought Lenin and Kemal together against the Allied
policies in Eurasia.
The pragmatic rapprochement between the two leaders of the newly
emerging regimes in Ankara and Moscow was based on taking advantage
of the weak positions of the small nations in the South Caucasus. When
Bolshevik control was consolidated in Azerbaijan on 28 April 1920 Turkish
nationalists stated that they were determined to restrict their policies within
Turkish national borders and Azeris were not part of this national project.
134
Ayla Go¨l
Afterwards, Soviet control was established in Armenia on 2 December 1920.
Interestingly enough, the last act of the outgoing independent Armenian
government in Erivan was to sign the Treaty of Alexandropol (G ¨umr ¨u) with
the Turks on 3 December 1920, which recognised the eastern boundaries of
the newly emerging Turkish state.
6
It was not a historical coincidence that
Turkish nationalists decided to put pressure on the independent Erivan
government as the first foreign authority to recognise the sovereignty of the
Ankara government. The treaty ranks as the first official agreement under-
taken by the Ankara government with a foreign state. Turkish scholars have
neglected the role of the treaty in their analyses of Turkish nationalism and
nation-state building since it was never ratified. Despite the fact that the treaty
did not have any legislative power it still played an important role in Turkish
nation-state building for the following reasons:
First, the Armenians were chosen as the first ‘other’ state which had to
recognise the authority of the new Ankara government. The Treaty of
Alexandropol indicated the willingness of the Turks to recognise the political
existence of the Armenians as the ‘other’ as long as they did not have any
territorial claims in Anatolia. It was a deliberate act that the Ankara
government signed the treaty on behalf of the ‘Turkish’ GNA and defined,
for the first time, the political identity of the Ankara government in terms of
the territorial delineation of Turkey. Second, the treaty demarcated the
Armenian–Turkish border in accordance with the principles of the Turkish
National Pact of 1920. The Ankara government regained all the eastern
provinces of the Ottoman Empire which had been lost to Russia after the war
of 1877–78. The border was later finalised by the Treaty of Kars between
Turkey and the Transcaucasian Soviet republics under the supervision of
Moscow in 1921, and this border between the modern Turkish and Armenian
states remains today (AMDP Vol. 1 Doc. 97: 571–9; PRO: Archival Re-
search).
7
Third, the victory against the Armenians created ardent nationalist
feelings among the Turks arising from the impression that the nationalists had
the necessary political will and material capabilities to fight against the foreign
invaders. In foreign affairs, both the Bolsheviks and the Allies changed their
policies towards the Ankara government after its victory over the Armenians.
Official Turkish nationalism ignores the possibility that if Turkish nation-
alists had not eliminated the Armenian threat first on the eastern front in
1920, there would most probably have been no victory against the Greek
forces on the western front in 1922. Although the Greek advance into
Anatolia had been in progress since June 1920 the Turkish nationalist forces
were not strong enough to undertake an offensive against the Greek army.
They first secured victory on the eastern front and gained Soviet support in
their struggle against the Greeks. Subsequently, on 30 August 1922, the
reinforced Turkish army defeated the Greek forces at the end of the Great
Offensive (B ¨uy ¨uk Taaruz). The liberation of Anatolia from the Armenian and
the Greek forces was part of a national plan to unite the Turkish nation under
the sovereignty of the Ankara government. Following the defeat of the
The Turkish nation and ‘othering’ Armenians
135
Armenians and the Greeks, the nationalists were in a strong position to utilise
their relations with Moscow to influence the Allied policy in relation to the
Turkish peace settlement.
The formation of the modern Turkish nation-state thus became contingent
on its recognition on a broader international level. The Allied invitation of the
Ankara government to the peace conference at Lausanne was the first sign of
Western recognition. The Ankara government gained full sovereignty for the
Turkish nation-state within the agreed territorial boundaries with the signing
of the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923. Furthermore, the homogenisation
of the Turkish nation within the new modern state progressed further as a
result of the exchange of Greek and Turkish minorities, which was agreed in a
separate treaty at Lausanne in 1923. Upon securing this exchange, and when
the new Constitution declared the Turkish state a ‘republic’ with sovereignty
derived from the nation on 29 October 1923, there existed a homogenised
‘Turkish’ community. Within the new imagination, one was recognised as a
Turk as long as s/he spoke Turkish, shared Turkish values and called herself/
himself a Turk within the boundaries of the sovereign Turkish state. The
Turkish nation was not based on ethnie and/or race. On the contrary, the
Turkish nation was defined as a ‘nation’ with de facto territorial sovereignty.
Moreover, religious minorities – specifically the Jews – were allowed to
become citizens as long as they did not have any territorial claims on the
Turkish territory. The Lausanne settlement was the zenith of Turkish
nationalism in international relations since there was no word of a united
independent Armenia as designated in the Treaty of Se`vres. The legacy of the
Ottoman past and the Allied plans for Anatolia in the 1920s led to the ‘Se`vres
syndrome’ which represented the misperception and distrust of the Western
intentions towards Turkey, which made the Turks very sensitive about the
protection of their territorial integrity and national identity.
Conclusion
The Turkish nation, like any other modern nation, is not only socially
constructed but is also burdened by its history. Nationalist ideologists are
free to use and misuse history when creating their myths and justifying their
claims. Two important implications emerge from this article’s reinterpretation
of Turkish nationalism and history. First, the emergence of Turkish nation-
alism was a consequence of the policies of Ottoman modernisation. The
Ottoman Empire was the first Islamic state to be modernised within the
European system. The initial aim of the Ottoman reformers was to catch up
with the European military and technology. During the Empire’s engagement
with European modernity, three interrelated factors – the erosion of
traditional Ottoman identity, the need for socio-political modernisation of
the Empire, and the development of print capitalism – cumulatively con-
tributed to the disintegration of the millet system and the emergence of
136
Ayla Go¨l
Turkish nationalism as a modern ideology. Examining the paradoxical
relationship between Ottoman modernisation and Turkish nationalism also
draws attention to the origins of the Turkish nation that lie outside ethnic
categories. It was argued in particular that the religious character of the
Ottoman Empire and its millet system prevented the utilisation of notions of
ethnicity in defining the meaning of Turkishness. Islam represented a stronger
unifying social force that superseded ethnic differences at the early stages of
the Turkish nation-building.
Second, exploring the causal link between modernisation and nationalism
also explains the process of nation-building, within which a nation is
constructed in relation to the other. In this context, the role of the Armenians
was revealed to be far more significant than the role of the Greeks during the
emergence of Turkish nationalism, and this needs to be understood in relation
to the social construction of a homogenous nation and the recognition of state
sovereignty over a territory. This article has argued that it was the Armenian
claims over the Eastern provinces of Anatolia that created a threat to the new
Turkish identity and became the basis for differentiating between the Turks
and the Armenians as their other. In this context, the process of ‘othering’ the
Armenians is based on the Turkish threat perception of Armenian territorial
claims. This perception will continue to serve Turkish politicians’ ideological
interests if Armenian nationalists also continue to insist on claiming that
Armenians must return to their historic homelands. The dialectical relation-
ship between the construction of the Turkish nation and the change of the
Armenians’ status from being ‘millet-i sad{ka’ to the ‘other’ encapsulates the
modernity of Turkish nationalism.
Notes
1 The Ottoman Empire was a multi-religious, multilingual, multicultural but not multi-national
Empire as we understand it in modern terms. The usage of ‘nation’ for millet misrepresents its
religious connotation.
2 Interestingly enough, the name Turchia (T ¨urkiye – Turkey) was given to the Anatolian
territories – Asia Minor – and people by Westerners during the Crusades in the eleventh century.
3 The basic principles of Kemalism were introduced through the symbolic ‘Six Arrows’ –
republicanism, nationalism, populism, etatism, secularism and reformism – of the Republican
Peoples’ Party and made part of the Turkish constitution in 1937. The main emphasis of
Kemalism was on the subordination of Islam to the secular character of the Turkish nation-state
and Kemalist nationalism served to this end.
4 FO371/4965/E15106/134/58, Communication by League of Nations, No. 20/40/56E, dated 26
November 1920.
5 FO371/6269/E 8378/8378/58, Outline of Events in Transcaucasia from the beginning of the
Russian revolution in the summer of 1917 to April 1921.
6 There is a disagreement about the day on which the Turkish–Armenian treaty was signed since
it was signed after midnight on 2 December.
7 FO371/6274/E13062/116/58, From Sir H. Rumbold (Constantinople), No. 1061, Agreement
between Angora and Caucasian Republics of 13 October 1921, dated 22 November 1921.
The Turkish nation and ‘othering’ Armenians
137
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