REVIEW
On the causes of persistent apical periodontitis:
a review
P. N. R. Nair
Institute of Oral Biology, Section of Oral Structures and Development, Centre of Dental and Oral Medicine, University of Zurich,
Zurich, Switzerland
Abstract
Nair PNR.
On the causes of persistent apical periodontitis: a
review. International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006.
Apical periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disorder
of periradicular tissues caused by aetiological agents of
endodontic origin. Persistent apical periodontitis occurs
when root canal treatment of apical periodontitis has
not adequately eliminated intraradicular infection.
Problems that lead to persistent apical periodontitis
include: inadequate aseptic control, poor access cavity
design, missed canals, inadequate instrumentation,
debridement and leaking temporary or permanent
restorations. Even when the most stringent procedures
are followed, apical periodontitis may still persist as
asymptomatic radiolucencies, because of the complex-
ity of the root canal system formed by the main and
accessory canals, their ramifications and anastomoses
where residual infection can persist. Further, there are
extraradicular factors – located within the inflamed
periapical tissue – that can interfere with post-treat-
ment healing of apical periodontitis. The causes of
apical periodontitis persisting after root canal treatment
have not been well characterized. During the 1990s, a
series of investigations have shown that there are six
biological factors that lead to asymptomatic radiolu-
cencies persisting after root canal treatment. These are:
(i) intraradicular infection persisting in the complex
apical root canal system; (ii) extraradicular infection,
generally in the form of periapical actinomycosis; (iii)
extruded root canal filling or other exogenous materials
that cause a foreign body reaction; (iv) accumulation of
endogenous cholesterol crystals that irritate periapical
tissues; (v) true cystic lesions, and (vi) scar tissue
healing of the lesion. This article provides a compre-
hensive
overview
of
the
causative
factors
of
non-resolving periapical lesions that are seen as
asymptomatic radiolucencies post-treatment.
Keywords: aetiology, endodontic failures, persistent
apical radiolucency, non-healing apical periodontitis,
refractory periapical lesions, persistent apical periodon-
titis.
Received 27 September 2005; accepted 24 November 2005
Introduction
Apical periodontitis is an inflammatory disorder of
periradicular tissues caused by persistent microbial
infection within the root canal system of the affected
tooth (Kakehashi et al. 1965, Sundqvist 1976). The
infected and necrotic pulp offers a selective habitat for
the organisms (Fabricius et al. 1982b). The microbes
grow in sessile biofilms, aggregates, coaggregates, and
also as planktonic cells suspended in the fluid phase of
the canal (Nair 1987). A biofilm (Costerton et al. 2003)
is a community of microorganisms embedded in an
exopolysaccharide matrix that adheres onto a moist
surface whereas planktonic organisms are free-floating
single microbial cells in an aqueous environment.
Correspondence: Dr P. N. R. Nair, Institute of Oral Biology,
Section of Oral Structures and Development (OSD), Centre of
Dental & Oral Medicine, University of Zurich, Plattenstrasse
11, CH-8028 Zurich, Switzerland (Tel.: +41 44 634 31 42;
fax: +41 44 312 32 81; e-mail: nair@zzmk.unizh.ch).
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
249
Microorganisms protected in biofilms are greater than
one thousand times more resistant to biocides as the
same organisms in planktonic form (Wilson 1996,
Costerton & Stewart 2000).
There is consensus that apical periodontitis persisting
after root canal treatment presents a more complex
aetiological and therapeutic situation than apical
periodontitis affecting teeth that have not undergone
endodontic treatment. The aetiological spectrum and
treatment options of persistent apical periodontitis are
broader than those of teeth that have not undergone
previous root canal treatment. Further, the process of
decision-making regarding the management of persist-
ent apical periodontitis is more complex and less
uniform among clinicians than in the management of
apical periodontitis affecting non-treated teeth (Fried-
man 2003). For optimum clinical management of the
disease a clear understanding of the aetiology and
pathogenesis of the disease is essential. Therefore, the
purpose of this communication is to provide a compre-
hensive overview of the causes and maintenance of
persistent apical periodontitis that is radiographically
visualized as periapical radiolucencies which are often
asymptomatic.
Intraradicular microorganisms being the essential
aetiological agents of apical periodontitis (Kakehashi
et al. 1965, Sundqvist 1976), the treatment of the
disease consists of eradicating the root canal microbes
or substantially reducing the microbial load and
preventing re-infection by root canal filling (Nair et al.
2005). When the treatment is done properly, healing
of the periapical lesion usually occurs with hard tissue
regeneration, that is characterized by reduction of the
radiolucency on follow-up radiographs (Strindberg
1956,
Grahne´n
&
Hansson 1961,
Seltzer
et al.
1963,
Storms
1969,
Molven
1976,
Kerekes
&
Tronstad 1979, Molven & Halse 1988, Sjo¨gren et al.
1990, 1997, Sundqvist et al. 1998). Nevertheless, a
complete healing of calcified tissues or reduction of the
apical radiolucency does not occur in all root canal-
treated teeth. Such cases of non-resolving periapical
radiolucencies are also referred to as endodontic
failures. Periapical radiolucencies persist when treat-
ment procedures have not reached a satisfactory
standard for the control and elimination of infection.
Inadequate aseptic control, poor access cavity design,
missed canals, insufficient instrumentation, and leak-
ing temporary or permanent restorations are common
problems that may lead to persistent apical periodon-
titis (Sundqvist & Figdor 1998). Even when the most
careful clinical procedures are followed, a proportion
of lesions may persist radiographically, because of the
anatomical complexity of the root canal system (Hess
1921, Perrini & Castagnola 1998) with regions that
cannot be debrided and obturated with existing
instruments, materials and techniques (Nair et al.
2005). In addition, there are factors located beyond
the root canal system, within the inflamed periapical
tissue, that can interfere with post-treatment healing
of the lesion (Nair & Schroeder 1984, Sjo¨gren et al.
1988, Figdor et al. 1992, Nair et al. 1999, Nair
2003a,b).
Microbial causes
Intraradicular infection
Microscopical
examination
of
periapical
tissues
removed by surgery has long been a method to detect
potential causative agents of persistent apical perio-
dontitis. Early investigations (Seltzer et al. 1967, And-
reasen & Rud 1972, Block et al. 1976, Langeland et al.
1977, Lin et al. 1991) of apical biopsies had several
limitations such as the use of unsuitable specimens,
inappropriate methodology and criteria of analysis.
Therefore, these studies did not yield relevant informa-
tion about the reasons for apical periodontitis persisting
as asymptomatic radiolucencies even after proper root
canal treatment.
In one histological analysis (Seltzer et al. 1967) of
persistent apical periodontitis, there was not even a
mention of residual microbial infection of the root canal
system as a potential cause of the lesions remaining
unhealed. A histobacteriological study (Andreasen &
Rud 1972) using step-serial sectioning and special
bacterial stains, found bacteria in the root canals of
14% of the 66 specimens examined. Two other studies
(Block et al. 1976, Langeland et al. 1977) analysed
230 and 35 periapical surgical specimens, respectively,
by routine paraffin histology. Although bacteria were
found in 10% and 15% of the respective biopsies, only
in a single specimen in each study was intraradicular
infection detected. In the remaining biopsies in which
bacteria were found, the data also included those
specimens in which bacteria were found as ‘contami-
nants on the surface of the tissue’. In yet another study
(Lin et al. 1991) ‘bacteria and or debris’ was found in
the root canals of 63% of the 86 endodontic surgical
specimens, although it is obvious that ‘bacteria and
debris’ cannot be equated as potential causative agents.
The low reported incidence of intraradicular infections
in these studies is primarily due to a methodological
Persistent apical periodontitis Nair
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
250
inadequacy as microorganisms easily go undetected
when the investigations are based on random paraffin
sections alone. This has been convincingly demonstra-
ted (Nair 1987, Nair et al. 1990a). Consequently,
historic studies on post-treatment apical periodontitis
did not consider residual intraradicular infection as an
aetiological causative factor.
In order to identify the aetiological agents of asymp-
tomatic persistent apical periodontitis by microscopy, the
cases must be selected from teeth that have had the best
possible root canal treatment and the radiographic
lesions remain asymptomatic until surgical intervention.
The specimens must be anatomically intact block-
biopsies that include the apical portion of the roots and
the inflamed soft tissue of the lesions. Such specimens
should undergo meticulous investigation by serial or
step-serial sections that are analysed using correlative
light and transmission electron microscopy. A study that
met these criteria and also included microbial monitor-
ing before and during treatment (Nair et al. 1990a)
revealed intraradicular microorganisms in six of the nine
block biopsies (Fig. 1). The finding showed that the
majority of root canal-treated teeth with asymptomatic
apical periodontitis harboured persistent infection in the
apical portion of the complex root canal system. How-
ever, the proportion of cases with persistent apical
periodontitis having intraradicular infection is likely to
be much higher in routine endodontic practice than the
two-thirds of the nine cases reported (Nair et al. 1990a)
for several reasons. At the light microscopic level it was
possible to detect bacteria in only one of the six cases
(Nair et al. 1990a). Microorganisms were found as a
biofilm located within the small canals of apical ramifi-
cations (Fig. 1) in the root canal or in the space between
the root fillings and canal wall. This demonstrates the
inadequacy of conventional paraffin techniques to detect
infections in apical biopsies.
The microbial status of apical root canal systems
immediately after non-surgical root canal treatment was
unknown. However, in a recent study (Nair et al. 2005),
14 of the 16 root filled mandibular molars contained
residual infection in mesial roots when the treatment
was completed in one-visit and includes instrumenta-
tion, irrigation with NaOCl and filling. The infectious
agents were mostly located in the uninstrumented
recesses of the main canals, isthmuses communicating
them and accessory canals. The microbes in such
untouched locations existed primarily as biofilms that
were not removed by instrumentation and irrigation
with NaOCl. In view of the great anatomical complexity
of the root canal system, particularly of molars (Hess
1921, Perrini & Castagnola 1998) and the ecological
organization of the flora into protected sessile biofilms
(Costerton & Stewart 2000, Costerton et al. 2003)
composed of microbial cells embedded in a hydrated
exopolysaccharide-complex in micro-colonies (Nair
1987), it is very unlikely that an absolutely microor-
ganism-free canal-system can be achieved by any of the
contemporary root canal preparation, cleaning and root
filling procedures. Then, the question arises as to why a
large number of apical lesions heal after non-surgical
root canal treatment. Some periapical lesions heal even
when infection persists in the canals at the time of root
filling (Sjo¨gren et al. 1997). Although this may imply
that the organisms may not survive post-treatment, it is
more likely that the microbes may be present in
quantities and virulence that may be sub-critical to
sustain the inflammation of the periapex (Nair et al.
2005). In some cases such residual microbes can delay or
prevent periapical healing as was the case with six of the
nine biopsies studied and reported (Nair et al. 1990a).
On the basis of cell wall ultrastructure only Gram-
positive bacteria were found (Nair et al. 1990a)
(Fig. 2), an observation fully in agreement with the
results of purely microbiological investigations of root
canals of previously root filled teeth with persisting
periapical lesions. Of the six specimens that contained
intraradicular infections, four had one or more mor-
phologically distinct types of bacteria and two revealed
yeasts (Fig. 3). The presence of intracanal fungi in root-
treated teeth with apical periodontitis was also con-
firmed by microbiological techniques (Waltimo et al.
1997, Peciuliene et al. 2001). These findings clearly
associate intraradicular fungi as a potential non-bacter-
ial, microbial cause of persistent apical lesions. Intra-
radicular
infection
can
also
remain
within
the
innermost portions of infected dentinal tubules to serve
as a reservoir for endodontic reinfection that might
interfere with periapical healing (Shovelton 1964,
Valderhaug 1974, Nagaoka et al. 1995, Peters et al.
1995, Love et al. 1997, Love & Jenkinson 2002).
Microbial flora of root canal-treated teeth
The endodontic microbiology of treated teeth is less
understood than that of untreated infected necrotic
dental pulps. This has been suggested to be a conse-
quence of searching for non-microbial causes of a
purely technical nature for lesions persistent after root
canal treatments (Sundqvist & Figdor 1998). Only a
small number of species has been found in the root
canals of teeth that have undergone proper endodontic
treatment that, on follow-up, revealed persisting,
Nair Persistent apical periodontitis
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
251
Figure 1
Light microscopic view of axial semithin sections through the surgically removed apical portion of the root with a
persistent apical periodontitis. Note the adhesive biofilm (BF) in the root canal. Consecutive sections (a, b) reveal the emerging
widened profile of an accessory canal (AC) that is clogged with the biofilm. The AC and the biofilm are magnified in (c) and (d)
respectively. Magnifications: (a)
·75, (b) ·70, (c) ·110, (d) ·300. Adapted from Nair et al. (1990a).
Persistent apical periodontitis Nair
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
252
asymptomatic periapical radiolucencies. The bacteria
found in these cases are predominantly Gram-positive
cocci, rods and filaments. By culture-based techniques,
species belonging to the genera Actinomyces, Enter-
ococcus and Propionibacterium (previously Arachnia)
are frequently isolated and characterized from such
root canals (Mo¨ller 1966, Sundqvist & Reuterving
1980,
Happonen
1986,
Sjo¨gren
et al.
1988,
Figure 2
Transmission electron microscopic view of the biofilm (BA upper inset) illustrated in Fig. 1. Morphologically the bacterial
population appears to be composed of only Gram-positive, filamentous organisms (arrowhead in lower inset). Note the distinctive
Gram-positive cell wall. The upper inset is a light microscopic view of the biofilm (BA). Magnifications:
·3400; insets: upper ·135,
lower
·21 300. From Nair et al. (1990a). Printed with permission from Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Ò
.
Nair Persistent apical periodontitis
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
253
Figure 3
Fungi as a potential cause of non-healed apical periodontitis. (a) Low-power view of an axial section of a root-filled (RF)
tooth with a persistent apical periodontitis (GR). The rectangular demarcated areas in (a) and (d) are magnified in (d) and (b),
respectively. Note the two microbial clusters (arrowheads in b) further magnified in (c). The oval inset in (d) is a transmission
electron microscopic view of the organisms. Note the electron-lucent cell wall (CW), nuclei (N) and budding forms (BU). Original
magnifications: (a)
·35, (b) ·130, (c) ·330, (d) ·60, oval inset ·3400. Adapted from Nair et al. (1990a). Printed with permission
from Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
ª
.
Persistent apical periodontitis Nair
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
254
Fukushima
et al.
1990,
Molander
et al.
1998,
Sundqvist et al. 1998, Hancock et al. 2001, Pinheiro
et al. 2003). The presence of Enterococcus faecalis in
cases of persistent apical periodontitis is of particular
interest because it is rarely found in infected but
untreated root canals (Sundqvist & Figdor 1998).
Enterococcus faecalis is the most consistently reported
organism from such former cases, with a prevalence
ranging from 22% to 77% of cases analysed (Mo¨ller
1966, Molander et al. 1998, Sundqvist et al. 1998,
Peciuliene et al. 2000, Hancock et al. 2001, Pinheiro
et al. 2003, Siqueira & Roˆc¸as 2004, Fouad et al. 2005).
The organism is resistant to most of the intracanal
medicaments, and can tolerate (Bystro¨m et al. 1985) a
pH up to 11.5, which may be one reason why this
organism survives antimicrobial treatment with cal-
cium hydroxide dressings. This resistance occurs prob-
ably by virtue of its ability to regulate internal pH with
an efficient proton pump (Evans et al. 2002). Entero-
coccus faecalis can survive prolonged starvation (Figdor
et al. 2003). It can grow as monoinfection in treated
canals in the absence of synergistic support from other
bacteria (Fabricius et al. 1982a). Therefore, E. faecalis is
regarded as being a very recalcitrant microbe among
the potential aetiological agents of persistent apical
periodontitis. However, the presence of E. faecalis in
cases of persistent apical periodontitis is not a universal
observation. This is because one microbial culture
(Cheung & Ho 2001) and a molecular based (Rolph
et al. 2001) study, in which the presence of E. faecalis in
such cases was investigated, failed to detect the
organism. Further, the prevalence of E. faecalis was
found to be 22% and 77%, respectively, of cases
analysed by two molecular techniques (Siqueira &
Roˆc¸as 2004, Fouad et al. 2005). In this context the
long reported correlation between the prevalence of
enterococci in root canals of primary and retreatment
cases and that in other oral sites, such as gingival sulcus
and tonsils, of the same patients, is worth noting
(Engstro¨m 1964). The enterococci may be opportunistic
organisms that populate exposed root filled canals from
elsewhere in the mouth (Fouad et al. 2005). Therefore,
in spite of the current focus of attention, it still remains
to be shown, in controlled studies, that E. faecalis is the
pathogen of significance in most cases of non-healing
apical lesions after endodontic treatment (Nair 2004).
Microbiological (Mo¨ller 1966, Waltimo et al. 1997)
and correlative electron microscopic (Nair et al. 1990a)
studies have shown the presence of yeasts (Fig. 3)
in canals of root filled teeth with unresolved apical
periodontitis. Candida albicans is the most frequently
isolated fungus from root filled teeth with apical perio-
dontitis (Molander et al. 1998, Sundqvist et al. 1998).
Extraradicular infection
Actinomycosis
Actinomycosis is a chronic, granulomatous, infectious
disease in humans and animals caused by the genera
Actinomyces
and
Propionibacterium
(McGhee
et al.
1982). The aetiological agent of bovine actinomycosis,
Actinomyces bovis, was the first species to be identified
(Harz 1879). The disease in cattle, known as ‘lumpy
jaw’ or ‘big head disease’, is characterized by extensive
bone rarefaction, swelling of the jaw, suppuration and
fistulation. The causative agents were described as non-
acid fast, non-motile, Gram-positive organisms reveal-
ing characteristic branching filaments that end in clubs
or hyphae. Because of the morphological appearance
these organisms were considered fungi and the taxon-
omy of Actinomyces remained controversial for more
than a century. The intertwining filamentous colonies
are often called ‘sulphur granules’ because of their
appearance as yellow specks in exudates. On careful
Dostları ilə paylaş: |