Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100 (2005) 114–117
Perspective paper
Chemical diversity of propolis and the problem of standardization
Vassya Bankova
∗
Institute of Organic Chemistry with Centre of Phytochemistry, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
Received 29 March 2005; received in revised form 29 March 2005; accepted 4 May 2005
Available online 29 June 2005
Abstract
Chemical variability of propolis is discussed with respect to the problem of standardization. Several chemical types of propolis are
formulated, based on their plant source. Reliable criteria for chemical standardization of different propolis types are needed but such generally
accepted criteria do not yet exist. The chemical profile of “poplar” propolis, typical for the temperate zone, can be characterized by the
following parameters: total flavone and flavonol content, total flavanone and dihydroflavonol content, and total phenolics content. These
parameters correlate better with the biological activity and are more informative that the quantification of individual components. There is
still a lot of work to be done to achieve standardization of other propolis types. Working with standardized material will allow scientists
to connect a particular chemical propolis type to a specific type of biological activity and formulate recommendations for mainstream
practitioners.
© 2005 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.
Keywords: Propolis; Plant origin; Biological activity; Standardization
1. Introduction
Propolis (bee glue) is a sticky dark-colored material that
honeybees collect from plants and use it in the hive: they
apply it to seal the walls, to strengthen the borders of combs,
to embalm dead invaders. Propolis is not only a building
material, it is the most important “chemical weapon” of bees
against pathogen microorganisms and has been used as a rem-
edy by humans since ancient times. It is still one of the most
frequently used remedies in the Balkan states (
Wollenweber
et al., 1990
), applied for treatment of wounds and burns, soar
throat, stomach ulcer, etc.
Because of its popularity in folk medicine, propolis has
become the subject of intense pharmacological and chem-
ical studies for the last 30 years. Numerous studies have
proven its versatile pharmacological activities: antibacte-
rial, antifungal, antiviral, antiinflammatory, hepatoprotective,
antioxidant, antitumor, etc. (
Banskota et al., 2001
). A sig-
nificant number of papers dealing with propolis chemistry
were also published and researchers began to understand that
∗
Tel.: +359 2 9606 149; fax: +359 2 9700 225.
E-mail address: bankova@orgchm.bas.bg.
its chemical composition was highly variable and depended
on the local flora at the site of collection (
Marcucci, 1995;
Bankova et al., 2000
). Although the biological activity of
bee glue and especially its activity against microorganisms
was always present, in samples from different geographic
and climatic zones this activity was the result of completely
different chemical composition (
Kujumgiev et al., 1999
).
It turned out that the term “propolis” is not characteriz-
ing with respect to the chemical composition, unlike the
term “bee venom” for example. The question arouse if there
was any sense in biological studies carried out with just
“propolis” without any chemical characteristic of the material
used. Deliberately, it became clear that comparing propo-
lis samples from different regions of the world (e.g. Bul-
garia and Brazil) might be the same as comparing extracts
of two plants that belong to different plant families. As a
result, recently almost every publication on propolis biolog-
ical activity includes some kind of chemical characterization
of the bee glue used (
Bankova, 2005
). However, in order to
be accepted officially into the main stream of the healthcare
system, propolis needs chemical standardization that guar-
antees its quality, safety, and efficacy. And here comes the
question.
0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2005 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.05.004
V. Bankova / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100 (2005) 114–117
115
2. Is it possible to standardize something as
inconstant as propolis?
Bee glue is a plant derived product and it has been proved
that bees do not change its chemical composition (
Bankova et
al., 2000
). Therefore, it is completely reasonable to approach
the problem of propolis standardization in the same way as
it is done for medicinal plants. In order to establish rele-
vant quantitative criteria for quality in medicinal plants and
extracts therefrom, different concepts have to be followed
depending on the available knowledge on the active princi-
ple(s) (
Bauer, 1998
). If the active principles are known and
accepted, they have to be quantified using an appropriate ana-
lytical method. If the active compounds are not known or still
under discussion, the total extract is regarded as the “active
principle” and in that case marker compounds must be use
for quality control. In the case of propolis, a lot of knowl-
edge has already been gathered on active components and
one of the most important active principles was found to be
CAPE (caffeic acid phenethyl ester) (
Banskota et al., 2001
).
But how could CAPE possibly be used for standardization if
most tropical samples do not contain even traces of it? The
same is true for many other active propolis constituents. In
such case, is universal chemical standardization possible for a
product as changeable as propolis? The obvious answer is no.
Is any standardization of propolis possible at all? The answer
is yes, if we formulate different propolis types according to
their plant source and the corresponding chemical profile.
3. Propolis chemical types, determined by its plant
origin
The materials available to bees for “manufacturing” of
propolis are substances actively secreted by plants as well as
substances exuded from wounds in plants: lipophilic materi-
als on leaves and leaf buds, resins, mucilages, gums, lattices,
etc. (
Crane, 1988
). The composition of the plant source deter-
mines the chemical composition of bee glue. Combined with
the knowledge of active principles, it gives clues to stan-
dardization and quality control, allowing the specification
of propolis types that have distinct chemical composition.
The present knowledge on most important biologically active
chemical constituents of propolis from different geographic
locations and the corresponding plant sources is represented
in
Table 1
. This table defines chemical types of propolis which
have to be regarded as distinct entities in the process of stan-
dardization and quality control. It is important to remember
that conclusions concerning the biological activity of one of
these propolis types can by no means be automatically trans-
ferred to another one.
In
Table 1
, the most studied propolis types are mentioned.
Of course, there are many other propolis source plants and
corresponding chemical types of propolis. For example, the
one found in some Mediterranean regions (Sicily, the Adriatic
coast) has as main components diterpenic acids (
Trusheva et
T
able
1
Propolis
types
according
to
their
plant
origin
and
their
chemical
composition
Propolis
type
Geographic
origin
Plant
source
Main
biologically
acti
v
e
substances
References
Poplar
propolis
Europe,
North
America,
non-tropic
re
gions
of
Asia
P
opulus
spp.
of
section
Aig
eir
os
,
most
often
P
.
nigr
a
L.
Fla
v
ones,
fla
v
anones,
cinnamic
acids
and
their
esters
Nagy
et
al.
(1986)
,
Greena
w
ay
et
al.
(1990)
,
Bank
o
v
a
et
al.
(2000)
Birch
propolis
Russia
Betula
verrucosa
Ehrh.
Fla
v
ones
and
fla
v
onols
(not
the
same
as
in
poplar
propolis)
Popra
vk
o
and
Sok
olo
v
(1980)
Green
(alecrim)
propolis
Brazil
Bacc
haris
spp.,
predominantly
B.
dr
acunculifolia
DC.
Pren
ylated
p
-coumaric
acids,
diterpenic
acids
Marcucci
and
Bank
o
v
a
(1999)
Red
(Clusia)
propolis
Cuba,
V
enezuela
Clusia
spp.
Polypren
ylated
benzophenones
Cuesta
Rubio
et
al.
(2002)
,
T
rushe
v
a
et
al.
(2004)
“P
acific”
propolis
P
acific
re
gion
(Okina
w
a,
T
aiw
an)
Unkno
wn
C-pren
ylfla
v
anones
Chen
et
al.
(2003)
,
K
umaza
w
a
et
al.
(2004)
“Canarian”
propolis
Canary
Islands
Unkno
wn
Furofuran
lignans
Christo
v
et
al.
(1999)
116
V. Bankova / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100 (2005) 114–117
al., 2003
); in Brazil, 11 propolis types other than Alecrim
(green) propolis have been described, but their occurrence is
much more restricted (
Park et al., 2002
), etc.
Anyway, it is important for researchers studying biological
activity of propolis to be aware of the existence of the problem
and to be able to distinguish between different propolis types.
It is essential to have detailed and reliable comparative data
on every type of biological activity, combined with chemical
data, in order to decide if some specific areas of application
of a particular propolis type can be formulated as preferable.
The biological tests have to be performed with chemically
well characterized, and if possible, chemically standardized
propolis. Reliable criteria for chemical standardization of dif-
ferent propolis types are needed. However, such generally
accepted criteria do not yet exist for any propolis type. Our
recent studies were directed towards the possibilities to stan-
dardize poplar type propolis.
4. Standardization of poplar type propolis based on
biologically active substances
Undoubtedly, poplar type propolis is the most profoundly
studied and the best known type of bee glue, both from chem-
ical and pharmacological point of view. It is important for
propolis users, such as companies producing propolis prepa-
rations, or scientists performing any type of biological studies
on propolis, to be able to recognize this propolis type. In
our laboratory we developed a simple test for identification
of poplar type propolis. Based on present knowledge of the
chemical composition of poplar bud exudates (
Nagy et al.,
1986; Greenaway et al., 1990; Bankova et al., 2000
), we chose
seven phenolic compounds as markers and developed a rapid
TLC procedure allowing us to tell the poplar samples from
all the other ones (
Popova et al., 2003
).
If a particular sample has been identified as one of poplar
origin, its main active components are known. However, any
attempt to measure the concentration of the active princi-
ples faces the fact that more than 25 individual phenolics
in poplar propolis were found to possess different types of
biological activities (
Marcucci, 1995; Banskota et al., 2001
).
Moreover, as is evident from the literature (especially con-
cerning antimicrobial activity) it is not possible to ascribe
the activity solely to one individual component (
Kujumgiev
et al., 1999
). Attempts to correlate the concentrations of
individual constituents with the biological activity of poplar
propolis failed:
Bonvehi et al. (1994)
, while studying the
correlation between antibacterial activity (expressed as min-
imum inhibitory concentration, MIC, against S. aureus) and
percentage of various active constituents, found that no indi-
vidual compound surpassed Pearson–Lee value. We assume,
therefore, that quantification of active compounds into groups
having the same or close chemical structure is more promis-
ing.
The chemical profile of poplar propolis can be charac-
terized by the three parameters: total flavone and flavonol
content, total flavanone and dihydroflavonol content, and
total phenolics content. We developed and validated rapid,
low-cost spectrophotometric procedures for quantification of
the three main groups of bioactive substances in poplar type
propolis (
Popova et al., 2004
). The spectrophotometric assay
based on the formation of aluminium chloride complex was
applied for quantification of total flavones/flavonols. Because
of the high amount of flavanones and dihydroflavonols
in “poplar” propolis, the introduction of a distinct pro-
cedure for their quantification was considered of special
significance and the colorimetric method with DNP (2,4-
dinitrophenylhydrazine) was applied for the purpose. Total
phenolics content was measured by the Folin–Ciocalteu pro-
cedure. The procedures were validated by using a model
mixture of 14 compounds representing the poplar propo-
lis composition as found in previous studies. The accu-
racy (recovery) varied in the range 84–109%, and the
relative standard deviation was 0.5–6.2%. The developed
spectrophotometric procedures were applied to real poplar
propolis samples. The results were verified independently
by a HPLC procedure. The two sets of results agreed
satisfactory, as proven by Student’s t-test (
Popova et al.,
2004
).
Having these validated methods, we analyzed a rela-
tively large number of poplar propolis samples from dif-
ferent regions of Europe and the Middle East—a total of
114 (
Popova et al., 2005
), and tested the samples also for
their antibacterial activity (MIC against S. aureus). The
large number of analyzed samples gives us the opportu-
nity to formulate the characteristics of a “typical poplar
sample”, based on statistics: flavones/flavonols 8
± 4%, fla-
vanones/dihydroflavonols 6
± 2%, total phenolics 28 ± 9%,
MIC 211
± 132 g/ml.
Processing the data, we found a significant negative corre-
lation between the concentration of total phenolics in propolis
balsam and MIC: the greater the concentration, the lower the
MIC (P = 0.003). Obviously, the percentage of total phenolics
correlates better with the biological activity and is more infor-
mative that the quantification of individual components. This
fact supports our concept that measuring the concentrations
of groups of active compounds instead of that of individual
components is the right approach in the case of propolis.
5. Conclusion
Evidently, the approach based on typification according
to the plant source gives good results in the field of propo-
lis standardization. There is still a lot of work to be done
by researchers to achieve a reliable standardization of propo-
lis types other than poplar type. This is especially important
with respect to the reliability of the results obtained in studies
on propolis biological activities. Working with standardized
material will allow scientists to connect a particular chemical
propolis type to a specific type of biological activity and for-
mulate recommendations for mainstream practitioners. This
V. Bankova / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100 (2005) 114–117
117
could help the general public to make more efficient use of
the beneficial properties of propolis.
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