particularly in what were then the oldest preserved tongues: Latin, Greek and
Sanskrit. The last is the language of The Vedas, an ancient body of writings from
India, and close analysis of its text showed that Sanskrit has a strong affinity with
Latin and Greek. For instance, the Sanskrit word for "three" is trayas, clearly
cognate with (i.e. from the same linguistic origin as) Latin tres and Greek treis,
also words for "three." Likewise, the Sanskrit sarpa, "snake," obviously shares a
common ancestor with the Latin serpens, the forebear of the English word serp
.
Today, the individual Indo-European languages with the most native speakers are
Spanish, English, Hindi–Urdu, Bengali, Portuguese, Russian, Punjabi, French and
German each with over 100 million native speakers; many others are small and in
danger of extinction.
In total, 46% of the world's population (3.2 billion people) speaks an Indo-
European language as a first language—by far the highest of any language family.
There are about 445 living Indo-European languages, according to an estimate by
Ethnologue, with over two-thirds (313) of them belonging to the Indo-Iranian
branch.
All Indo-European languages are descended from a single prehistoric language,
linguistically reconstructed as Proto-Indo-European, spoken sometime in the
Neolithic to Early Bronze Age. The geographical location where it was spoken, the
Proto-Indo-European homeland, has been the object of many competing
hypotheses; the academic consensus supports the Kurgan hypothesis, which posits
the homeland to be the Pontic–Caspian steppe in what is now Ukraine and southern
Russia, associated with the Yamnaya culture and other related archaeological
cultures during the 4th millennium BC to early 3rd millennium BC. By the time
the first written records appeared, Indo-European had already evolved into
numerous languages spoken across much of Europe, South Asia, and part of
Western Asia. Written evidence of Indo-European appeared during the Bronze Age
in the form of Mycenaean Greek and the Anatolian languages of Hittite and
Luwian. The oldest records are isolated Hittite words and names—interspersed in
texts that are otherwise in the unrelated Akkadian language, a Semitic language—
found in texts of the Assyrian colony of Kültepe in eastern Anatolia dating to the
20th century BC.[2] Although no older written records of the original Proto-Indo-
European population remain, some aspects of their culture and their religion can be
reconstructed from later evidence in the daughter cultures.[3] The Indo-European
family is significant to the field of historical linguistics as it possesses the second-
longest recorded history of any known family, after the Afroasiatic family in the
form of the pre-Arab Egyptian language and the Semitic languages. The analysis of
the family relationships between the Indo-European languages, and the
reconstruction of their common source, was central to the development of the
methodology of historical linguistics as an academic discipline in the 19th century.
The Indo-European language family is not considered by the current academic
consensus in the field of linguistics to have any genetic relationships with other
language families, although several disputed hypotheses propose such
relations."entostratic language superfamily; this theory is controversial.
3.General characteristics of Germanic languages
Strong evidence for the unity of all the modern Germanic languages can be found
in the phenomenon known as the first Germanic sound shift or consonant shift
(also called Grimm's law), which set the Germanic subfamily apart from the other
members of the Indo-European family. Consisting of a regular shifting of
consonants in groups, the sound shift had already occurred by the time adequate
records of the various Germanic languages began to be made in the 7th to 9th cent.
According to Grimm's law, certain consonant sounds found in the ancient Indo-
European languages (such as Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit) underwent a change in
the Germanic tongue. For example, the sounds p, d, t, and k in the former became
f, t, th, and h respectively in the latter, as in Latin pater, English father; Latin dent,
English tooth; and Latin cornu, English horn.
Before the 8th cent. a second shift of consonants took place in some of the West
German dialects. For instance, under certain circumstances, d became t, and t
became ss or z, as in English bread, Dutch brood, but German Brot; English foot,
Dutch voet, but German Fuss; and English ten, Dutch tien, but German zehn. The
dialects in which this second consonant shift took place were the High German
dialects, so called because they were spoken in more mountainous areas. Standard
modern German arose from these dialects. The West Germanic dialects not affected
by the second shift were the Low German dialects of the lowlands, from which
Dutch and English evolved.
Also peculiar to the Germanic languages is the recessive accent, whereby the stress
usually falls on the first or root syllable of a word, especially a word of Germanic
origin. Another distinctive characteristic shared by the Germanic languages is the
umlaut, which is a type of vowel change in the root of a word. It is demonstrated in
the pairs foot (singular), feet (plural) in English; fot (singular), fötter (plural) in
Swedish; and Kampf (singular), Kämpfe (plural) in German.
All Germanic languages have strong and weak verbs; that is, they form the past
tense and past participle either by changing the root vowel in the case of strong
verbs (as in English lie, lay, lain or ring, rang, rung; German ringen, rang,
gerungen) or by adding as an ending -d (or -t) or -ed in the case of weak verbs (as
in English care, cared, cared or look, looked, looked; German fragen, fragte,
gefragt). Also typically Germanic is the formation of the genitive singular by the
addition of -s or -es. Examples are English man, man's; Swedish hund, hunds;
German Lehrer, Lehrers or Mann, Mannes. Moreover, the comparison of adjectives
in the Germanic languages follows a parallel pattern, as in English: rich, richer,
richest; German reich, reicher, reichst; and Swedish rik, rikare, rikast. Lastly,
vocabulary furnished evidence of a common origin for the Germanic languages in
that a number of the basic words in these languages are similar in form; however,
while word similarity may indicate the same original source for a group of
languages, it can also be a sign of borrowing.
SEVEN DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF GERMANIC
Germanic became different from the other Indo-European language groups in
seven main ways:
1. The Indo-European verbal system was simplified. Indo-European distinctions
of tense and aspect (indicates whether an action or state is viewed with regard to
beginning, duration, incompletion, etc.) were lost except for the present and
preterite (past) tenses. These two tenses are still the only ones indicated by
inflection in Modern English; future and perfect tenses are expressed in phrases--
e.g., I will have gone, etc.
2. Germanic developed a preterite tense (called weak or regular) with a dental
suffix, -d or -t (e.g. fish, fished, etc.). Germanic languages thus have two types of
verbs, weak (regular) and strong (irregular). Strong verbs indicate tense by an
internal vowel change (e.g. swim, swam, swum). The weak form is the living
method of inflection, and many originally strong verbs have become weak.
3. Germanic developed weak and strong adjectives. The weak declension was
used when the modified noun was preceded by another word which indicated case,
number, and gender. The strong declension was used in other situations. These
declensions are no longer found in modern English, but compare these examples
from Old English: þa geongan ceorlas 'the young fellows' and geonge ceorlas
'young fellows.'(The weak adjective ends in -an while the strong adjective ends -e.)
4. The Indo-European free accentual system allowed any syllable to be stressed. In
Germanic the accent (or stress) is mainly on the root of the word, usually the first
syllable.
5. Several Indo-European vowels were modified in the Germanic languages. For
example, Indo-European /a:/ became /o:/. Compare Latin mater and Old English
modor.
6. Two consonant shifts occurred in Germanic. In the First Sound Shift
(commonly known as Grimm's Law) the Indo-European stops bh, dh, gh, p, b, t, d,
k, and g underwent a series of shifts. The Second Sound Shift (also known as the
High German Sound Shift) affected the high but not the low Germanic languages,
so English was not affected.
7. Germanic has a number of unique vocabulary items, words which have no
known cognates in other Indo-European languages. These words may have been
lost in the other Indo-European languages, borrowed from non-Indo-European
languages, or perhaps coined in Germanic. Among these words are Modern
English rain, drink, drive, broad, hold, wife, meat, fowl."ages.
4. Historical development of the Germanic languages
With the arrival of the Romans in the year 55 BCE, the Germanic tribes’ lives —
and their language — would change forever. Numerous Latin concepts from trade,
war, and infrastructure expanded the Germanic vocabulary to include words such
as mura (from the Latin murus, later Mauer, or “wall”), or strazza (Straße, or
“street,” from the Latin via strata).
But let’s not forget: The Germanic language wasn’t a singular one — it was
actually made up of different dialects. One can hear, for example, clear distinctions
between Old Norse and Old Saxon, or Western Germanic dialects such as
Alemannic and Eastern Germanic dialects such as Gothic.
The Germanic language group stands as a linguistic enigma, weaving together a
fascinating tale of ancient origins and intricate evolution. Spanning across Europe,
this diverse family of languages shares a common ancestry in the depths of time.
As we embark on a journey through the annals of linguistic history, we will unravel
the mysteries surrounding the formation of the Germanic language group, tracing
its roots back to the vast expanse of Proto-Indo-European.
From the ancient whispers of Gothic and the resounding sagas of Old Norse to the
lyrical elegance of modern German and the global reach of English, this article
seeks to shed light on the languages that shape the multifaceted tapestry of the
Germanic languages, exploring their interconnectedness and enduring influence on
human communication and culture.
The Germanic language group, an intricate network of languages spoken across
Europe, holds a fascinating history that stretches back to ancient times.
Understanding the origin and evolution of this linguistic family provides us with
invaluable insights into the rich tapestry of human communication.
The Germanic group of languages belongs to the larger Indo-European language
family, which includes an array of languages spoken from India to Europe.
Scholars believe that the ancient tribes of northern Europe, who lived around 3,000
years ago, spoke a common ancestral language referred to as Proto-Indo-European
(PIE). As these tribes migrated and interacted with various cultures, the Proto-
Indo-European language changed and eventually split into different language
branches, one of which was the Germanic branch.
The Germanic branch further divided into three main groups: East Germanic
languages, which included languages like Gothic (now extinct); North Germanic
languages, comprising Old Norse (spoken by the Vikings) and its modern
descendants like Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian; and West Germanic languages,
which gave rise to languages such as Old High German, Old English, and Old Low
Franconian.
The Emergence of Old High German
During the early medieval period, around the 6th to 11th centuries, a significant
development in the Germanic group of languages occurred with the emergence of
Old High German (OHG). This language was spoken in the territory that now
corresponds to parts of modern-day Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.
OHG was heavily influenced by the neighboring Romance languages, particularly
Latin, due to the cultural and political connections with the Roman Empire. As a
result, many Latin loanwords found their way into the Old High German
vocabulary, enriching the language and giving it a more complex linguistic
structure.
The Impact of the Vikings and Old Norse
While Old High German was evolving in the south, the Vikings were making their
mark in the north. The Vikings, formidable seafarers, and explorers, spoke Old
Norse, a North Germanic language. Through their extensive voyages and trading
ventures, they spread their language and culture across vast regions, leaving a
lasting impact on the languages of the British Isles and even parts of the
Mediterranean.
The Legacy of Old English
Meanwhile, in the British Isles, another branch of the Germanic language group
was flourishing: Old English. The Anglo-Saxons, who migrated to Britain in the
5th and 6th centuries, brought their Germanic language with them, and over time,
it evolved into Old English. Remarkably, despite subsequent Norman influences,
traces of Old English vocabulary and grammar persist in the modern English
language.
Influence of the Printing Press and Martin Luther
The late medieval period saw another transformative event in the history of Germ
press in the 15th century. With the printing press, books and texts became more
accessible to the general public, leading to the standardization and dissemination of
written languages. Notably, the work of Martin Luther, the influential German
religious reformer, played a crucial role in shaping the modern German language.
Luther's translation of the Bible into German, completed in 1534, became a
landmark achievement in the history of German literature. His choice of the Saxon
dialect as the basis for his translation helped establish it as the standard for written
German, significantly influencing the development of modern High German.
Formation of Modern High German
Over time, the numerous dialects and regional variations of German began to
coalesce, especially during the 18th and 19th centuries. This standardization
process, known as Hochsprache, led to the formation of modern High German, the
official language of Germany today.
Modern German continues to evolve and adapt to contemporary needs and
influences. It boasts a wealth of literature, scientific contributions, and cultural
expressions that reflect the vibrant and dynamic nature of this Germanic language.
List of Germanic Languages
The Germanic group encompasses a diverse array of languages spoken
predominantly in Europe. These languages share common linguistic features and
historical roots, ultimately tracing their origins back to a common ancestral
language, Proto-Germanic. Within the group of Germanic languages, there are
three main branches: West Germanic, North Germanic, and East Germanic. Let's
explore each branch and the languages included within them.
West Germanic Languages
The West Germanic branch is the largest and most widely spoken among the
Germanic languages. It includes several languages, some of which are major world
languages today:
German (Deutsch) - As the official language of Germany, Austria, and
Liechtenstein, and one of the official languages of Switzerland, German boasts
over 90 million native speakers. It is a significant global language and is widely
studied for its cultural and economic importance.
English - With over 360 million native speakers and millions more as a second
language, English is arguably one of the most influential languages worldwide. It
serves as the primary language of the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, and numerous other countries and territories.
Dutch (Nederlands) - Spoken in the Netherlands, Belgium (Flemish), and
Suriname, Dutch is the native language of over 24 million people. It shares
similarities with German and English, making it relatively accessible for speakers
of these languages.
Afrikaans - Derived from Dutch, Afrikaans is primarily spoken in South Africa and
Namibia. It is the third-most-spoken language in South Africa and serves as a
symbol of the nation's diverse cultural heritage.
Yiddish - Historically spoken by Ashkenazi Jews, Yiddish blends elements of
German, Hebrew, and Slavic languages. While its use has declined, it still holds
cultural significance for Jewish communities around the world.
North Germanic Languages
The North Germanic branch consists of languages spoken predominantly in the
Nordic countries:
Danish (Dansk) - As the official language of Denmark, Danish is spoken by over 6
million people. It shares linguistic similarities with Swedish and Norwegian,
enabling communication among speakers of these languages.
Swedish (Svenska) - The official language of Sweden and spoken by over 10
million people, Swedish also serves as one of the official languages of Finland.
Norwegian (Norsk) - With over 5 million speakers, Norwegian is the official
language of Norway. Interestingly, there are two written forms of Norwegian:
Bokmål and Nynorsk, each representing different historical dialects.
Icelandic (Íslenska) - Icelandic is known for its remarkably well-preserved Old
Norse heritage, making it somewhat mutually intelligible with Old Norse texts. It
is the official language of Iceland.
Faroese (Føroyskt) - Spoken by around 80,000 people in the Faroe islands, Faroese
also traces its roots back to Old Norse.
East Germanic Languages
The East Germanic branch, unlike the other branches, includes languages that are
now extinct. It historically comprised several languages spoken in areas now
encompassed by Eastern Europe:
Gothic - Gothic, spoken by the Goths in the early medieval period, is the earliest
attested Germanic language. Although it is no longer spoken, its written records
remain valuable for understanding the early development of the Germanic
languages.
5. Derivation and word building of the Germanic Languages
Derivation
In Germanic languages affixation, both prefixation and suffixation, is used
predominantly for derivation of new words. These processes are used for the
derivation of all major categories: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Examples
of derived words from these categories in English are unrest, be-little, un-able
(prefixation), and bak-er, stabil-ize, beauti-ful and nice-ly (suffixation). The
input words are usually also words of major categories (except adverbs), but in
some cases they can also be words of minor lexical categories such as prepositions
and numerals. Phrases also occur as bases of derivation.
This is illustrated here by the derivation of Dutch diminutives:
Huis/house huis -je / small house
Blond /blond blond-je /blond woman
Spell / to play spell-tje / toy
Onder ons / between us onderons-je / private chat
Word formation in Germanic languages takes mainly place by means of
compounding and affixation. Compounds are usually right-headed, and there is
often a linking element in N+N-compounds that derives historically from a case
ending. In addition to endocentric compounds there are also copulative
compounds.
The word formation system of Germanic languages has been influenced strongly
by contact with the classical languages Greek and Latin, and with French. The
influence of Latin was due to its role as lingua franca in Europe in the domains of
science and religion. The specific influence of French on English dates back to the
11th century when the Normans conquered England. For centuries, French
was a dominant language in European culture and politics, and thus affected all
Germanic languages. Hence, we see many non-native affixes in Germanic
languages as the effect of borrowing. Borrowing did not take place of affixes in
isolation: complex words were borrowed, and once a sufficient number of words
with a certain affix had been borrowed, the affix could be identified on the basis of
a systematic form-meaning correspondence in a set of similar words, and also used
productively in the borrowing languages. For instance, French deadjectival nouns
ending in -ité such as liberté ‘freedom’ were borrowed in Dutch, English, and
German, and subsequently, new nouns of this type were coined. The suffix itself
was slightly adapted as to phonological form: -iteit in Dutch, -ity in English, -ität
in German, and -itet in Norwegian.
Word formation, along with borrowing, is the most important way of enriching the
vocabulary of the language. By analogy (models and patterns) with already
existing lexemes with the help of morphemic and lexical material, word-building
constructions are created. There are various models of word-building structures,
which often differ in various ways in different researchers, since linguistics does
not have a single interpretation and definition of the word-formation model as a
unit of word-formation (Stepanova, 2007). The division is based on the types of
word-building elements, their combination and hence the resulting word-formative
meaning. Development in word formation does not consist in the emergence of
new ways of word formation, but in the use of predominantly one or other model .
On the basis of the whole system of word formation, it should be noted that in the
German language a major role in the derivation performs compounding, which is a
leading way of word formation in German language at the present moment. Being
a multifaceted, multidimensional and highly complex phenomenon, word, on the
one hand, is often intertwined with the affixation and other means of word
formation, on the other hand, is on the border with the syntax. Especially
productive is compositing as a way of forming German nouns, which are
distinguished by a great variety of their morphological composition. Prefixation is
the same as compositing, a very ancient but productive way of word formation. It
should be noted that almost all available prefixes are produced in modern German.
Suffixation can also be classified as productive ways of word formation in modern
German. However, in spite of a number of features that combine the suffix and
half-suffix, one can speak about the apparent advantages in word-formation of
semisuffles before suffixes. Firstly, many variants of the extended suffixes are
unproductive, for example―aner, -aster, -iener, -eiser, -ianer, -iter, -ner, -ser etc.
Foreign-language affixes practically do not participate in the word-production with
German bases. Secondly, semi-suffixes that retain a part of the deep semantic
structure (biological genus, etc.) are more informative, and the main goal of
communication is the transfer of information. Unlike suffixation, word formation
by changing the root as an independent way is unproductive in modern language,
although words formed in this way are very numerous.
6.Derivation of verbs and nouns in Germanic language
1. Verbs are derived from other verbs (deverbatives) by vowel change (with or
without change of consonant)
Fahren, (fuhr)- fuhren; to fare , proceed- to lead
Fliessen ( floss) -flossen ; to flow – to float
Winden- to wind
Weden – to turn, wend
Wachen-weeken; to be awake – to waken up
Hagen – to be suspended
Henken – to execute by hanging
Biegen- beugen- bucken; to bow, bend- cause to bend- stoop
2. verbs are derived from nouns and adjectives (denominatives) with or without
vowel change:
Gras- grasen; plug- plugen; stark- starken; zahm- zahmen
3. verbs are derived from particles:
Ach- achzen; du – dozen;
Verbs are formed by means of derivation terminations.
(1)
By terminations -eln and -ern
Klingen- klingeu ; sound, clink- ring the bell
saunsen- sauseln; whiz-rustle
tropfen- tropfeln; drip- trickle
The forse of suffix -eln, as we see from the above examples , is frequentative,
diminutive, and derogatory.
The suffix -ern has causative and frequentative force
Steigen-steigern; rise – raise
Rauchen -rauchern; smoke-fumigate
(2)
By terminations - sen; -schen; -zen;
Greinen-grinsen; whine grin-grin
Herr-herrschen; master-to rule
Feil – feilschen; ; on sale – higgle , bargain
(3)
By – ieren ( verbs with this termination are of foreign , mostly of French
origin) and -igen:
Halbieren- halve;
Frisicren-frizzle, dress the hair
Buchstabieren – spell
Verbs are formed by means of Composition.
(1)
Noun or adjective + verb
Teil nehman -take part
Hoch achten- respect highly
Tot schlagen- kill, murder
(2)
Adverb or preposition+ verb
Veg laufen- to run away
Vor dringen – press forvard
Mit nehmen- to take ( with one )
Derivation of nouns
(1)
Nouns are derived either by internal vowel change or by means of prefixes and
suffixes . Nouns which show no trace of either form of derivation are regarded
as primitive nouns , for example : Fuss , Baum, Vater
Fligen Der flug- flight der flugel- wing
Schneiden Der schnit- cut der schnitter – tailor( cutter) der schnitzel-chip
Reiten Der Ritt-ride der ritter- knight
(2)
Sometimes Ge- denotes ”with together” like Lat. Con, and forms nouns
expressive of companionship
Der geselle-companion ( sharing a room with)
Gafahrte- companion ( travel with)
(3)
From verbal roots Ge- forms abstract and concrete nouns:
Der geruch – smell
Der geschmack- taste
Der gebrauch- usage
Concrete nouns are formed chiefly by the following suffixes:
(1)
-el which forms masculine nouns , mostly indicating an instrumental or
appliance:
Heben- hebel; raise – lever
Decken – deckel; cover-cover
Henken - Henkel; suspend- handle
(2)
-er ( -er , -ster) which forms masculine nouns.
(a)
Indicates an instrument or applicance
Bohren- bohrer; bore, drill- gimlet
Leuchten-leuchter; give light- candlestick
Zunden- zunder; kindle- tinder
(b)
-er when added to verbs denotes the agent “ the one who does “
Backer – baker
Henker – hangman
Erzicher- tutor
(c)
-er ( -ner, - ler) when added to nouns denotes “ one employed with “
Schafer- shepherd
Harfner- harper
Tischler – joiner
(d)
-er when added to names of places denotes origin :
Englander
Munchener
Schweizer
A large number of nouns are formed without change of vowel from stems of Weak
verbs:
Branchen- Der brauch; usage
Kaufen – der kauf; purchase
Laufen – Der lauf; course
References:
1 Audring , Jenny and Geert Booji. 2016. Cooperation and coercion. Linguistic .
2. https.//www.britannica.com
3.https.//www.researchgate.net
4.Dyen, Isidore, Krusal, Black, Paul (1997) “comparative indo- European”
5. Bethge Richard ( 1900) “ Konjugation des Urgermanischen”
6. The article of William G. Moulton and Anthony F. Buccini
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