1st trend is translation history

Hi is a man of taste
Он человек со вкусом
all the king's men
все королевские солдаты


Generalization is a case when the SL word with some special narrow meaning is substituted by the TL word with general wide semantic meaning. E.g. He visits Jane every weekend – каждую неделю.
This type is not so wide-spread and occurs less frequently than concretization. May be this is due to the fact that abstract and desemantized words in English form, a numerous and diversified group, thus supplying a linguistic base to this type of transformation, whereas generalization appears to be lacking a similar linguistic foundation. Sometimes generalization is resorted to for pragmatic reasons in order to avoid expanded explanations or footnotes.
There is a tendency in the English language to use nouns denoting measures of weight, distance, length, etc. in describing people and things which do not require such precision in their description. This method of description is foreign to the Russian practice and recourse is usually taken to generalization: He was a young man of 6 feet two inches.Это был высокий молодой человек.
I mean it. - Я не шучу.
That killed me.
Я чуть не сдох
Hurry up.
Только не копайся!
21. Omission. Addition.
Omission is a type of transformations by means of which some units are omitted in case they violate the norms of the TL. We also omit the words that are not necessary for understanding or expressing a certain colouring. One of the cases of superfluity is the use in English of twin pair synonyms mostly typical of judicial documents. E.g. regular and normal session – обычная сессия, with the advice and Consent of the Senate – с согласия сената
Some typical cases of redundancy may be mentioned here: synonymous pairs, the use of weights and measures with emphatic intent, subordinate clauses of time and place. Homogeneous synonymous pairs are used in different styles of the language: Equality of treatment in trade and commerce. – Равные возможности в торговле. Words denoting measures and weights are frequently used in describing people or abstract notions. They are either omitted or replaced in translation: Every inch of his face expressed amazement. На его лице было написано изумление.
Subordinate clauses of time and of place are frequently felt to be redundant in Russian and are omitted in translation: The storm was terrific while it lasted. Буря была ужасная.
Sometimes semantic units available or implied in the deep structure drop out when it is transformed into the surface structure. These semantic units should be deduced from the deep structure and added in the process of translation. This process is called addition. E.g. oil countries – страны-производители нефти, wages demand – требование повысить зарплату, solid engine – двигатель на твердом топливе. There are particular cases when additions are caused by compressed structures such as the absolute possessive, attributes formed by juxtaposition N₁ + N₂ structures and by attributive groups.
The model N₁ + N₂ often requires additions in translation: death vehicle – автомашина, убившая прохожего. Sometimes additions are required by pragmatic considerations: pay claim – требование повышения заработной платы. Attributive groups are another case in point. The elements forming such groups vary in number, their translation into Russian as a rule requires additions, e.g. oil thirsty Europe – Европа, испытывающая нехватку нефти. Additions are also caused by discrepancy in the use of the plural and singular forms of certain nouns: Delegates from various industries – представители различных отраслей промышленности. Another cause of additions is English word building, e.g. conversation and the use of some non-equivalent suffixes: We showered and dressed.Мы приняли душ и оделись.


22. Loan translation
Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the material existing in the TL but according to the patterns taken from the SL. E.g. Дом культуры – House of Culture, backbencher – заднескамеечник, стенная газета – wall newspaper.
Literal translation should not be confused with translation loans. A translation loan is a peculiar form of word-borrowing by means of literal translation. Translation loans are built on the pattern of foreign words or phrases with the elements of the borrowing language, e.g. collective farm is a translation loan of the Russian колхоз but in a full and not in an abbreviated form; oil dollars -нефтедоллары; goodneighbourly relations – добрососедские отношения (a full loan); war effect (a partial loan as number does not coincide).


Transliteration_There_are_two_ways_of_rendering_proper_names_in_translation:_transcription_and_transliteration.__Transcription'>23. Transcription. Transliteration
There are two ways of rendering proper names in translation: transcription and transliteration.
Transcription - The representation of the sound of the words in a language using another alphabet or set of symbols created for that purpose. Transcription is not concerned with representing characters: it strives to give a phonetically (or phonologically) accurate representation of the word. This may differ, depending on the language or set of symbols into which the word is being transcribed. Because transcription attempts to recreate the meaning-bearing sounds of the original using the alphabet(s) and spelling conventions of the language into which it is transcribed, multiple spellings of the same word are possible for a single language, and dozens may be encountered if searching across languages.
Transcription is now universally accepted: Mary – Мэри. Phonetic peculiarities, however, sometimes interfere and modify this principle by causing certain departures, e.g. the name of the well-known novelist Iris Murdoch is rendered with the inserted letter (and sound) “p” – Айрис Мэрдок.
Transliteration or representing a SL word by means of the more or less corresponding TL characters, that is, in a graphic way, is no longer regarded as an acceptable method of rendering proper names in translation.Transliteration is not concerned with representing the phonetics of the original: it only strives to accurately represent the characters.
But tradition has preserved it in some cases and therefore this method still survives, e.g. Lincoln is rendered as Линкольн and Wellington as Веллингтон. O’Henry – О’Генри.
Hollywood - Голливуд
Beatles – Битлз
24. Occasional lacuna and the problem of translation
Non-equivalents are SL words which have no corresponding lexical units in the TL vocabulary.
The absence of equivalents may be explained both by extralinguistic and linguistic reasons. Accordingly, non-equivalents may be divided into two groups. The first group consists of words denoting referents unknown in the target language – things, objects, notions, features of national life, customs, habits, etc. the words of this group bear a distinctly national character and are tied up with the history of the people speaking that language, the growth of its culture, its way of life and traditions. The words belonging to this group cover a wide range of denotation, e.g. speaker, parliament, public school, landslide, coroner, teach-in, drive-in, know-how, striptease, brain drain, backbencher, grill-room, as well as titles of politeness, etc.
The second group embraces words which for some linguistic reason have no equivalents in the target language, the so-called linguistic lacuna, e.g. privacy, involvement, glimpse, conservationist, environmentalist, oralist, readership, riser, bedder, vote-getter, statehood, etc.
There are three ways of rendering non-equivalents in translation.