A course In Modern English Lexicology

§ 10. Semi-Affixes
whose derivational function does not allow
one to refer them unhesitatingly either to the derivational affixes or bases.
In words like half-done, half-broken, half-eaten and ill-fed, ill-housed, ill-dressed the ICs half- and i l l - are given in linguistic literature different interpretations: they are described both as bases and as derivational prefixes. The comparison of these ICs with the phonetically identical stems in independent words i l l and half as used in such phrases as to speak i l l of smb, half an hour ago makes it obvious that in words like ill-fed, ill-mannered, half-done the ICs i l l - and half- are losing both their semantic and structural identity with the stems of the independent words. They are all marked by a different distributional meaning which is clearly revealed through the difference of their collocability as compared with the collocability of the stems of the independently functioning words. As to their lexical meaning they have become more indicative of a generalising meaning of incompleteness and poor quality than the individual meaning proper to the stems of independent words and thus they function more as affixational morphemes similar to the prefixes out-, over-, under-, semi-, mis-regularly forming whole classes of words. Besides, the high frequency of these morphemes in the above-mentioned generalised meaning in combination with the numerous bases built on past participles indicates their closer ties with derivational affixes than bases. Yet these morphemes retain certain lexical ties with the root-morphemes in the stems of independent words and that is why are felt as occupying an intermediate position,1
as morphemes that are changing their
1 See also ‘Word-Structure’, § 3, p. 92. 102
class membership regularly functioning as derivational prefixes but still retaining certain features of root-morphemes. That is why they are sometimes referred to as semi-affixes. To this group we should also refer well-and self- (well-fed, well-done, self-made), -man in words like postman, cabman, chairman, -looking in words like foreign-looking, alive-looking, strange-looking, etc.
Neither bases nor affixes alone can predict all
§ 1 1 . Derivational Patterns the structural and semantic properties of words the ICs of which they may be. It is the combination of bases and affixes that makes up derivatives of different structural and semantic classes. Both bases and affixes due to the distributional meaning they possess show a high degree of consistency in their selection and are collocated according to a set of rules known as derivational patterns. Aderi -
v a t i o n a l p a t t e r n is a r e g u l a r meaningful arrangement, a structure that imposes rigid rules on the order and the nature of the derivational bases and affixes that may be brought together. A pattern is a generalisation, a scheme indicative of the type of ICs, their order and arrangement which signals the part of speech, the structural and semant ic peculiarities common to all the individual words for which the pattern holds true. Hence the derivational patterns (DP) may be viewed as classifiers of non-simple words into structural types and within them into semantic sets and subsets. DPs are studied with the help of distributional analysis at different levels. Patterns of derivative structures are usually represented in a generalised way in terms of conventional symbols: small letters v, n, a, d, пит stand for the bases which coincide with the stems of the respective parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, numerals; ved, ving stand for the bases which are the past and present participles respectively. In words of the long-fingered or sit-inner type the derivational bases are represented by bracketed symbols of the parts of speech making up the corresponding collocations, for example (a+n)+ +-ed), (v+d) + er.
DPs may represent derivative structure at different levels of generalisation:
a) at the level of structural types specifying only the class membership of ICs and the direction of motivation, such as a+-sf -> N, prf- + +n -> V, prf- n -> N, n + -sf -> N, n + -sf -> V, etc. In terms of patterns of this type, known as structural formulas,1 all words may be classified into four classes: suffixal derivatives, e.g. friendship, glorified, blackness, sky-ward; prefixal derivatives, e.g. rewrite, exboxer, non-smoker, un-happy, etc.; conversions, e.g. a cut, to parrot, to winter, etc.; compound words key-ring, music-lover, wind-driven, etc. But derivational formulas are not indicative either of any one lexical-grammatical or lexical class of words, as, for example, the formula a + -sf may equally represent suffixal nouns as in blackness, possibility and verbs, as in sharpen, widen, or adjectives as in blackish.
b) derivative structure and hence derivative types of words may be represented at the level of structural patterns which specify the base See ‘Word-Group’, § 7, p. 70.
103
classes and individual affixes thus indicating the lexical-grammatical and lexical classes of derivatives within certain structural classes of words.
DPs of this level are based on the mutual interdependence of individual affixes and base classes and may be viewed in terms of each. The suffixes refer derivatives to specific parts of speech and lexical subsets as, for example, v + -er -> N signals that the derivatives built on this pattern are deverbal nouns which represent a semantic set of active agents, denoting both animate and inanimate objects, e.g. reader, runner, singer, unlike, for example, denominal nouns with the underlying pattern п+ -еr -> N
which stands for agents denoting residents or occupations, e.g. Londoner, villager, gardener. The DP n+-ish -> A signals a set of adjectives with the lexical meaning of resemblance, whereas a + -ish -> A signals adjectives meaning a small degree of quality, etc.
c) DPs may be specified as to the lexical-semantic features of both ICs.
DPs of this level specify the semantic constraints imposed upon the set of derivatives for which the pattern is true and hence the semantic range of the pattern. For example, the nominal bases in the pattern n+-ess -> N are confined to nouns having in their semantic structures a component ‘a male animate being’, e.g. lioness, traitress, stewardess, etc.; the nominal bases in n+-ful2 -> N are limited by nouns having a semantic component ‘container’, e.g. lungful, carful, mouthful, whereas in n+ -ful1 -> A the nominal bases are confined to nouns of abstract meaning. The same is true of the pattern n + -y -> A which represents different semantic sets of derivatives specified by semantic constraints imposed on both the bases and the suffix: nominal bases denoting living beings are collocated with the suffix
-y meaning ‘resemblance’, e.g. birdy, spidery, catty, etc., but nominal bases denoting material, parts of the body attract another meaning of the suffix -y that of ‘considerable amount, size’ resulting in the adjectives like powdery, grassy, leggy, starry, etc.
It follows that derivational patterns may be classified into two types —
structural pattern (see b, above) and structural-semantic pattern (see c).
According to their derivational structure