An Introduction to Old English Edinburgh University Press

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e and royal from French. In other areas, however, and
especially in syntax and morphology, there was only a small effect. The
changing nature of Old English phonology, on the other hand, when
combined with the influx of French loans, probably contributed to the
introduction of French stress systems, particularly in respect of poly-
syllabic items. But compared with Scandinavian, there appears to have
been significantly less bilingualism, and this, together with the very
different nature of French linguistic structure, inhibited the possibility
of any similar creole situation arising. Furthermore, the fact that French
only significantly affected English after the period of the changes
we have discussed were fully under way or even complete, makes the
influence of French on core elements of structure less probable.
10.4 Envoi
Perhaps, rather than this French word, you would have preferred me to
use the French-Latin loan conclusion. I doubt very much that you would
have been impressed if I had used the Old English word ending (OE
endung). This is, of course, a matter of style and register, or the different
varieties of language available to speakers. And as such it serves as a
reminder that we can never have access to all the varieties of English
before the Norman Conquest.
But even accepting this lack, it remains the case that Old English is the
foundation of the present-day language. As we have just seen, neither the
Viking nor the Norman invasions by themselves created the language we
have today. For this reason alone, the study of Old English is essential for
an understanding of the language in which you are reading this text.
English arrived in Britain as the language of invaders, a language
which at the time was not clearly distinct from the other languages of the
North Sea coast and its hinterland. Within no more than two centuries
it had banished to the periphery the Celtic languages spoken by those it
invaded. One of my principal aims, therefore, has been to demonstrate
this Germanic inheritance. By now, therefore, you should have an under-
standing of the principal Germanic features, such as the noun, adjective
and verbal morphology, the word order system and the methods of word
formation. However I have also attempted to demonstrate, especially in
the later stages of this book, how such structures were able to develop
into the language of today.
THE FUTURE
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In the section on recommended reading below, I make a number of
suggestions which will enable you to further your study of both Old
English and its later developments. One point which needs to be made
here, however, is the following. In order to understand and, even more
so, to evaluate the material which I have presented above, it is necessary
to read texts written in Old English. Only in this way will you be able to
recognise the patterns of the language.
Exercises
Just as at the halfway stage of this book I presented you with a set of
questions which might allow you to assess and present the material you
had seen, so here I present you with a set of essay questions one or more
of which you might like to attempt. There is a reasonable amount of
choice here, so I shall make some suggestions about each.
1. Is English a Germanic language?
You can answer this question in two ways. You could start from Old
English and then show some aspects which have either changed or
remained. Or you could start from present-day English and work
backwards.
2. What are the sources of Old English vocabulary?
It is important to remember that this includes the original vocabulary, as
well as word-formation strategies and borrowing.
3. To what extent does Old English vocabulary contribute to the
vocabulary of the present-day language?
This is the opposite question to (2). Now you have to assess the extent
to which Old English vocabulary, including its processes of word form-
ation, forms the core of the present-day vocabulary.
4. Write an essay on Old English word order, using examples from the
texts which have been presented.
The point of this essay is not merely for you to write a standard essay on
the topic. If you use a good range of examples, then you will discover that
Old English word order is rather more complex than my summary
descriptions have suggested.
5. Analyse the structure of Old English strong verbs and compare that
structure with that of such verbs in the present-day language.
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This is a difficult topic, and depends as much on your knowledge of the
present-day language as on Old English. But the hope is that you will be
able to discern how much of the Old English verb system has remained
and how much has been lost.
6. Explain the metrical system of most Old English poetry and consider
also the use of poetic vocabulary.
Here you will need to read considerably more poetry than I have
presented. However, a poem such as The Wanderer will be a useful start.
You should provide an analysis of a range of stress patterns and also
interesting examples of alliteration. In terms of vocabulary, pay especial
attention to the use of compounds.
THE FUTURE
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Old English – present-day
English glossary
Nouns are indicated by their gender and, in the case of n-declension nouns only,
by their declension. Nouns which occur only in the plural are marked ‘plural’.
Verbs are indicated by their class membership, i.e. 1, 2, I, II, etc. Irregular verbs
are indicated by ‘anom’ and preterite-present verbs by ‘pr-pr’. Strong verbs
which have a weak present tense are marked ‘wk pr’. Other contractions are:
adj = adjective, advb = adverb, conj = conjunction, dem = demonstrative,
prep = preposition, pron = pronoun.