Aegyptica
(History of Egypt) by the ancient historian Manetho who lived in the 3rd
century BCE under the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE). Although his chronology has been
disputed by later historians, it is still regularly consulted on dynastic succession and the early
history of ancient Egypt.
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Narmer Palette [Two Sides]
Unknown Artist (Public Domain)
Manetho's work is the only source which cites Menes and the conquest, and it is now thought that
the man referred to by Manetho as 'Menes' was the king Narmer who peacefully united Upper and
Lower Egypt under one rule. Identi cation of Menes with Narmer is far from universally accepted,
however, and Menes has been as credibly linked to the king Hor-Aha (c. 3100-3050 BCE) who
succeeded him. An explanation for Menes' association with his predecessor and successor is that
'Menes' is an honori c title meaning "he who endures" and not a personal name and so could have
been used to refer to more than one king. The claim that the land was uni ed by military
campaign is also disputed as the famous Narmer Palette, depicting a military victory, is considered
by some scholars to be royal propaganda. The country may have rst been united peacefully, but
this seems unlikely.
Geographical designation in ancient Egypt follows the direction of the Nile River and so Upper
Egypt is the southern region and Lower Egypt the northern area closer to the Mediterranean Sea.
Narmer ruled from the city of Heirakonopolis and then from Memphis and Abydos. Trade
increased signi cantly under the rulers of the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt and elaborate
mastaba tombs, precursors to the later pyramids, developed in Egyptian burial practices which
included increasingly elaborate mummi cation techniques.
The Gods
From the Predynastic Period in Egypt (c. 6000 - c. 3150 BCE) a belief in the gods de ned the
Egyptian culture. An early Egyptian creation myth tells of the god Atum who stood in the midst of
swirling chaos before the beginning of time and spoke creation into existence. Atum was
accompanied by the eternal force of
heka
(magic), personi ed in the god Heka and by other
spiritual forces which would animate the world.
Heka
was the primal force which infused the
universe and caused all things to operate as they did; it also allowed for the central value of the
Egyptian culture:
ma'at
, harmony and balance.
All of the gods and all of their responsibilities went back to
ma'at
and
heka
. The sun rose and set as
it did and the moon traveled its course across the sky and the seasons came and went in
accordance with balance and order which was possible because of these two agencies.
Ma'at
was
also personi ed as a deity, the goddess of the ostrich feather, to whom every king promised his full
abilities and devotion. The king was associated with the god Horus in life and Osiris in death based
upon a myth which became the most popular in Egyptian history.
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Egyptian God Osiris
A.K. (Copyright)
Osiris and his sister-wife Isis were the original monarchs who governed the world and gave the
people the gi s of civilization. Osiris' brother, Set, grew jealous of him and murdered him but he
was brought back to life by Isis who then bore his son Horus. Osiris was incomplete, however, and
so descended to rule the underworld while Horus, once he had matured, avenged his father and
defeated Set. This myth illustrated how order triumphed over chaos and would become a
persistent motif in Egyptian religion, mortuary rituals, and religious texts, and art. There was no
period in which the gods did not play an integral role in the daily lives of the Egyptians and this is
clearly seen from the earliest times in the country's history.
The Old Kingdom
During the period known as the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2613-2181 BCE), architecture honoring
the gods developed at an increased rate and some of the most famous monuments in Egypt, such
as the pyramids and the Great Sphinx of Giza, were constructed. The king Djoser, who reigned c.
2670 BCE, built the rst Step Pyramid at Saqqara c. 2670, designed by his chief architect and
physician Imhotep (c. 2667-2600 BCE) who also wrote one of the rst medical texts describing the
treatment of over 200 di erent diseases and arguing that the cause of disease could be natural, not
the will of the gods. The Great Pyramid of Khufu (last of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world)
was constructed during his reign (2589-2566 BCE) with the pyramids of Khafre (2558-2532 BCE)
and Menkaure (2532-2503 BCE) following.
The Pyramids, Giza, Egypt
Shellapic76 (CC BY)
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THE MIDDLE KINGDOM OF
EGYPT IS CONSIDERED ITS
'CLASSICAL AGE' WHEN ART
& CULTURE REACHED GREAT
HEIGHTS & THEBES BECAME
THE MOST IMPORTANT &
WEALTHIEST CITY.
The grandeur of the pyramids on the Giza plateau, as they originally would have appeared,
sheathed in gleaming white limestone, is a testament to the power and wealth of the rulers during
this period. Many theories abound regarding how these monuments and tombs were constructed,
but modern architects and scholars are far from agreement on any single one. Considering the
technology of the day, some have argued, a monument such as the Great Pyramid of Giza should
not exist. Others claim, however, that the existence of such buildings and tombs suggest superior
technology which has been lost to time.
There is absolutely no evidence that the monuments of the Giza plateau - or any others in Egypt -
were built by slave labor nor is there any evidence to support a historical reading of the biblical
Book of Exodus. Most reputable scholars today reject the claim that the pyramids and other
monuments were built by slave labor, although slaves of di erent nationalities certainly did exist
in Egypt and were employed regularly in the mines. Egyptian monuments were considered public
works created for the state and used both skilled and unskilled Egyptian workers in construction,
all of whom were paid for their labor. Workers at the Giza site, which was only one of many, were
given a ration of beer three times a day and their housing, tools, and even their level of health care
have all been clearly established.
The First Intermediate Period & the Hyksos
The era known as the First Intermediate Period of Egypt (2181-2040 BCE) saw a decline in the
power of the central government following its collapse. Largely independent districts with their
own governors developed throughout Egypt until two great centers emerged: Hierakonpolis in
Lower Egypt and Thebes in Upper Egypt. These centers founded their own dynasties which ruled
their regions independently and intermittently fought with each other for supreme control until c.
2040 BCE when the Theban king Mentuhotep II (c. 2061-2010 BCE) defeated the forces of
Hierakonpolis and united Egypt under the rule of Thebes.
The stability provided by Theban rule allowed
for the ourishing of what is known as the
Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE). The Middle
Kingdom is considered Egypt's 'Classical Age'
when art and culture reached great heights and
Thebes became the most important and
wealthiest city in the country. According to the
historians Oakes and Gahlin, "the Twel h
Dynasty kings were strong rulers who
established control not only over the whole of
Egypt but also over Nubia to the south, where
several fortresses were built to protect Egyptian
trading interests" (11). The rst standing army
was created during the Middle Kingdom by the
king Amenemhat I (c. 1991-1962 BCE) the temple of Karnak was begun under Senruset I (c. 1971-
1926 BCE), and some of the greatest and Egyptian literature and art was produced. The 13th
Dynasty, however, was weaker than the 12th and distracted by internal problems which allowed for
a foreign people known as the Hyksos to gain power in Lower Egypt around the Nile Delta.
The Hyksos are a mysterious people, most likely from the area of Syria/Palestine, who rst
appeared in Egypt c. 1800 and settled in the town of Avaris. While the names of the Hyksos kings
are Semitic in origin, no de nite ethnicity has been established for them. The Hyksos grew in
power until they were able to take control of a signi cant portion of Lower Egypt by c. 1720 BCE,
rendering the Theban Dynasty of Upper Egypt almost a vassal state.
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Map of Ancient Egypt
Tina Ross (Copyright)
This era is known as The Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1782 - c. 1570 BCE). While the
Hyksos (whose name simply means 'foreign rulers') were hated by the Egyptians, they introduced
a great many improvements to the culture such as the composite bow, the horse, and the chariot
along with crop rotation and developments in bronze and ceramic works. At the same time the
Hyksos controlled the ports of Lower Egypt, by 1700 BCE the Kingdom of Kush had risen to the
south of Thebes in Nubia and now held that border. The Egyptians mounted a number of
campaigns to drive the Hyksos out and subdue the Nubians, but all failed until prince Ahmose I of
Thebes (c. 1570-1544 BCE) succeeded and uni ed the country under Theban rule.
The New Kingdom & the Amarna Period
Ahmose I initiated what is known as the period of the New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1570 - c. 1069
BCE) which again saw great prosperity in the land under a strong central government. The title of
pharaoh
for the ruler of Egypt comes from the period of the New Kingdom; earlier monarchs were
simply known as kings. Many of the Egyptian sovereigns best known today ruled during this
period and the majority of the great structures of Egyptian architecture such as the Ramesseum,
Abu Simbel, the temples of Karnak and Luxor, and the tombs of the Valley of the Kings and Valley
of the Queens were either created or greatly enhanced during this time.
Between 1504-1492 BCE the pharaoh Thutmose I (Tuthmosis I) consolidated his power and
expanded the boundaries of Egypt to the Euphrates River in the north, Syria and Palestine to the
west, and Nubia to the south. His reign was followed by Queen Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE) who
greatly expanded trade with other nations, most notably the Land of Punt. Her 22-year reign was
one of peace and prosperity for Egypt.
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Portrait of Queen Hatshepsut
Rob Koopman (CC BY-SA)
Her successor, Thutmose III (Tuthmosis III), carried on her policies (although he tried to eradicate
all memory of her as, it is thought, he did not want her to serve as a role model for other women
since only males were considered worthy to rule) and, by the time of his death in 1425 BCE, Egypt
was a great and powerful nation. The prosperity led to, among other things, an increase in the
brewing of beer in many di erent varieties and more leisure time for sports. Advances in
medicine led to improvements in health.
Bathing had long been an important part of the daily Egyptian's regimen as it was encouraged by
their religion and modeled by their clergy. At this time, however, more elaborate baths were
produced, presumably more for leisure than simply hygiene. The Kahun Gynecological Papyrus,
concerning women's health and contraceptives, had been written c. 1800 BCE and, during this
period, seems to have been made extensive use of by doctors. Surgery and dentistry were both
practiced widely and with great skill, and beer was prescribed by physicians for ease of symptoms
of over 200 di erent maladies.
Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus
Francis Llewellyn Grif th (Public Domain)
In 1353 BCE the pharaoh Amenhotep IV succeeded to the throne and, shortly a er, changed his
name to Akhenaten (`living spirit of Aten') to re ect his belief in a single god, Aten. The Egyptians,
as noted above, traditionally believed in many gods whose importance in uenced every aspect of
their daily lives. Among the most popular of these deities were Amun, Osiris, Isis, and Hathor. The
cult of Amun, at this time, had grown so wealthy that the priests were almost as powerful as the
pharaoh. Akhenaten and his queen, Nefertiti, renounced the traditional religious beliefs and
customs of Egypt and instituted a new religion based upon the recognition of one god.
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AKHENATEN WAS THE FIRST
RULER TO DECREE STATUARY
& A TEMPLE IN HONOR OF
HIS QUEEN INSTEAD OF
ONLY FOR HIMSELF OR THE
GODS.
His religious reforms e ectively cut the power of
the priests of Amun and placed it in his hands.
He moved the capital from Thebes to Amarna to
further distance his rule from that of his
predecessors. This is known as The Amarna
Period (1353-1336 BCE) during which Amarna
grew as the capital of the country and
polytheistic religious customs were banned.
Among his many accomplishments, Akhenaten
was the rst ruler to decree statuary and a
temple in honor of his queen instead of only for
himself or the gods and used the money which
once went to the temples for public works and parks. The power of the clergy declined sharply as
that of the central government grew, which seemed to be Akhenaten's goal, but he failed to use his
power for the best interest of his people. The Amarna Letters make clear that he was more
concerned with his religious reforms than with foreign policy or the needs of the people of Egypt.
His reign was followed by his son, the most recognizable Egyptian ruler in the modern day,
Tutankhamun, who reigned from c. 1336 - c. 1327 BCE. He was originally named Tutankhaten to
re ect the religious beliefs of his father but, upon assuming the throne, changed his name to
Tutankhamun to honor the ancient god Amun. He restored the ancient temples, removed all
references to his father's single deity, and returned the capital to Thebes. His reign was cut short
by his death and, today, he is most famous for the intact grandeur of his tomb, discovered in 1922
CE, which became an international sensation at the time.
Death Mask of Tutankhamun
Richard IJzermans (CC BY-NC-SA)
The greatest ruler of the New Kingdom, however, was Ramesses II (also known as Ramesses the
Great, 1279-1213 BCE) who commenced the most elaborate building projects of any Egyptian ruler
and who reigned so e ciently that he had the means to do so. Although the famous Battle of
Kadesh of 1274 BCE (between Ramesses II of Egypt and Muwatalli II of the Hittites) is today
regarded as a draw, Ramesses considered it a great Egyptian victory and celebrated himself as a
champion of the people, and nally as a god, in his many public works.
His temple of Abu Simbel (built for his queen Nefertari) depicts the battle of Kadesh and the
smaller temple at the site, following Akhenaten's example, is dedicated to Ramesses' favorite
queen Nefertari. Under the reign of Ramesses II, the rst peace treaty in the world (The Treaty of
Kadesh) was signed in 1258 BCE and Egypt enjoyed almost unprecedented a uence as evidenced
by the number of monuments built or restored during his reign.
Ramesses II's fourth son, Khaemweset (c. 1281 - c. 1225 BCE), is known as the "First Egyptologist"
for his e orts in preserving and recording old monuments, temples, and their original owner's
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names. It is largely due to Khaemweset's initiative that Ramesses II's name is so prominent at so
many ancient sites in Egypt. Khaemweset le a record of his own e orts, the original
builder/owner of the monument or temple, and his father's name as well.
Abu Simbel Panorama
Dennis Jarvis (CC BY-SA)
Ramesses II became known to later generations as 'The Great Ancestor' and reigned for so long
that he outlived most of his children and his wives. In time, all of his subjects had been born
knowing only Ramesses II as their ruler and had no memory of another. He enjoyed an
exceptionally long life of 96 years, over double the average lifespan of an ancient Egyptian. Upon
his death, it is recorded that many feared the end of the world had come as they had known no
other pharaoh and no other kind of Egypt.
The Decline of Egypt & the Coming of Alexander the Great
One of his successors, Ramesses III (1186-1155 BCE), followed his policies but, by this time, Egypt's
great wealth had attracted the attention of the Sea Peoples who began to make regular incursions
along the coast. The Sea Peoples, like the Hyksos, are of unknown origin but are thought to have
come from the southern Aegean area. Between 1276-1178 BCE the Sea Peoples were a threat to
Egyptian security. Ramesses II had defeated them in a naval battle early in his reign as had his
successor Merenptah (1213-1203 BCE). A er Merenptah's death, however, they increased their
e orts, sacking Kadesh, which was then under Egyptian control, and ravaging the coast. Between
1180-1178 BCE Ramesses III fought them o , nally defeating them at the Battle of Xois in 1178
BCE.
Following the reign of Ramesses III, his successors attempted to maintain his policies but
increasingly met with resistance from the people of Egypt, those in the conquered territories, and,
especially, the priestly class. In the years a er Tutankhamun had restored the old religion of
Amun, and especially during the great time of prosperity under Ramesses II, the priests of Amun
had acquired large tracts of land and amassed great wealth which now threatened the central
government and disrupted the unity of Egypt. By the time of Ramesses XI (1107-1077 BCE), the
end of the 20th Dynasty, the Egyptian government had become so weakened by the power and
corruption of the clergy that the country again fractured and central administration collapsed,
initiating the so-called Third Intermediate Period of Egypt c. 1069-525 BCE.
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Map of the Third Intermediate Period
Jeff Dahl (CC BY-SA)
Under the Kushite King Piye (752-722 BCE), Egypt was again uni ed and the culture ourished, but
beginning in 671 BCE, the Assyrians under Esarhaddon began their invasion of Egypt, conquering
it by 666 BCE under his successor Ashurbanipal. Having made no long-term plans for control of
the country, the Assyrians le it in ruin in the hands of local rulers and abandoned Egypt to its
fate. Egypt rebuilt and reforti ed, however, and this is the state the country was in when Cambyses
II of Persia struck at the Battle of Pelusium in 525 BCE. Knowing the reverence the Egyptians held
for cats (who were thought living representations of the popular goddess Bastet), Cambyses II
ordered his men to paint cats on their shields and to drive cats, and other animals sacred to the
Egyptians, in front of the army toward Pelusium. The Egyptian forces surrendered and the
country fell to the Persians. It would remain under Persian occupation until the coming of
Alexander the Great in 332 BCE.
Alexander was welcomed as a liberator and conquered Egypt without a ght. He established the
city of Alexandria and moved on to conquer Phoenicia and the rest of the Persian Empire. A er
his death in 323 BCE his general, Ptolemy I Soter, brought his body back to Alexandria and
founded the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE). The last of the Ptolemies was Cleopatra VII who
committed suicide in 30 BCE a er the defeat of her forces (and those of her consort Mark Antony)
by the Romans under Octavian Caesar at the Battle of Actium (31 BCE). Egypt then became a
province of the Roman Empire (30 BCE-476 CE) then of the Byzantine Empire (c. 527-646 CE)
until it was conquered by the Arab Muslims under Caliph Umar in 646 CE and fell under Islamic
rule.
Artist's Depiction of an Excavation in Egypt
Mohawk Games (Copyright)
The glory of Egypt's past, however, was rediscovered during the 18th and 19th centuries CE and
has had a profound impact on the present-day's understanding of ancient history and the world.
Historian Will Durant expresses a sentiment felt by many:
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The effect or remembrance of what Egypt accomplished at the very dawn of
history has in uence in every nation and every age. 'It is even possible', as
Faure has said, 'that Egypt, through the solidarity, the unity, and the
disciplined variety of its artistic products, through the enormous duration
and the sustained power of its effort, offers the spectacle of the greatest
civilization that has yet appeared on the earth.' We shall do well to equal it.
(217)
Egyptian Culture and history has long held a universal fascination for people; whether through
the work of early archeologists in the 19th century CE (such as Champollion who deciphered the
Rosetta Stone in 1822 CE) or the famous discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun by Howard
Carter in 1922 CE. The ancient Egyptian belief in life as an eternal journey, created and
maintained by divine magic, inspired later cultures and later religious beliefs. Much of the
iconography and the beliefs of Egyptian religion found their way into the new religion of
Christianity and many of their symbols are recognizable today with largely the same meaning. It is
an important testimony to the power of the Egyptian civilization that so many works of the
imagination, from lms to books to paintings even to religious belief, have been and continue to
be inspired by its elevating and profound vision of the universe and humanity's place in it.
Bibliography
Bunson, M.
The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Gramercy Books, 1991.
David, R.
Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2003.
Flinders, Sir W. M. (William Matthew Flinders) Petrie.
The Religion of Ancient Egypt. Public Domain Books, 2009.
Gods and Goddesses
Accessed 1 Dec 2016.
Nardo, D.
Living in Ancient Egypt. Thompson/Gale, 2004.
Oakes, L. and Gahlin, L.
Ancient Egypt. Hermes House, London, 2008.
Shaw, I.
The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2006.
Strudwick, H.
The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Metro Books, 2006.
Wilkinson, R. H.
The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson, 2003.
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