1. Introduction 1.1. Nuclear (Radioactive) Waste Following the definition given by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
basic safety standard (BSS) “Radiation protection and safety of radiation sources: Interna-
tional basic safety standards” [1], radioactive waste is material that contains, or is contam-
inated with, radionuclides at activity concentrations greater than clearance levels, as es-
tablished by the regulatory body, for which, for legal and regulatory purposes, no further
use is foreseen. The terms “radioactive waste” and “nuclear waste” are generically used
as synonyms in the context of safety and waste management. Nuclear waste, compared
with non-nuclear waste, is a material that has levels of radioactivity above clearance lev-
els, and this is the only difference that introduces a complex and highly regulated area of
radioactive waste management (RWM). Clearance and/or exemption levels are always es-
tablished by national authorities of countries although in most cases these are based on
the IAEA BSS, which provides a complete list of rather conservative exemption levels for
all practically important radionuclides [1].
The wastes that contain, or are contaminated with, radionuclides at activity concen-
trations below the clearance levels are considered conventionally non-radioactive. The fo-
cus point is that the world around us and all materials have some background levels of
radioactivity and only the materials and activities that significantly exceed these levels
enter regulatory control, whereas the background levels of radiation and substances con-
taining the radionuclides, which in most cases have natural origins, do not present any
harm to the environment and humans (if not the opposite). The use of conventionally non-
radioactive materials is hence not controlled by nuclear-related regulatory organisations