Archaeology

Wylie, Joanna (2003): Negotiating the Landscape: A Comparative Investigation of Wayfinding, Mapmaking and Territoriality in Selected Hunter-Gatherer Societies.
As human beings we are continually interacting with the landscape, and have been doing so throughout the entire course of our evolution. This thesis specifically investigates the way in which hunter-gatherers negotiate and interact with their landscapes, focusing on three patterns of behaviour: wayfinding, mapmaking and territoriality. An examination of the relevant international literature reveals that globally, hunter-gatherer groups both past and present share a number of similarities with regard to their wayfinding and mapmaking techniques, and territorial behaviour. A case study of Maori interaction with the landscape of prehistoric and protohistoric Te Wai Pounamu [the South Island] provides further support for the central argument that hunter-gatherers collectively negotiate and interact with the landscape in distinctive ways. This contrasted with the interaction of European explorers and travellers with the 19th century landscape of Te Wai Pounamu in Chapter 5.

It is determined that hunter-gatherers use detailed cognitive or ‘mental’ maps to navigate their way through a range of landscapes from dense forests to barren plains. These maps often consist of sequences of place names that represent trails. These cognitive maps are most commonly developed through direct interaction with the landscape, but can also be formed vicariously through ephemeral maps drawn with the purpose of communicating geographical knowledge. Prior to European contact, little importance seems to have been given to artefactual or ‘permanent’ maps within hunter-gatherer societies as the process of mapmaking was generally regarded as more significant than the actual product.

Although the literature on hunter-gatherer territoriality is complex and in some cases conflicting, it is contended that among a number of hunter-gatherer groups, including prehistoric and protohistoric Maori in Te Wai Pounamu, interaction and negotiation with the landscape was/is not restricted to exclusive territories marked by rigidly defined boundaries. Among these groups, a specific method of territoriality known as ‘social boundary defence’ was/is employed. This involves controlling access to the social group inhabiting an area rather than access to the area itself, as with groups utilising the territorial method of ‘perimeter defence’.
2002
Beckwith, Jacinta (2002): Pre-Angkor Cambodia: The Transition from Prehistory to History.
This study documents the archaeological data, epigraphical evidence and Chinese historical records for the development of the early states of Cambodia. Prior to the first century AD, significant information about Cambodia and Northeast Thailand is based upon inferences from archaeology. Most archaeological work has been undertaken in central and Northeast Thailand, central and southern Vietnam, while very little work has been done within Cambodia itself (Vickery 1998:18). Observations recorded by the Chinese appear from the first century, where visiting embassies and reports from Southeast Asia to the Chinese court were incorporated into official histories of succeeding Chinese dynasties. Chinese travelers visiting Cambodia in the third century also made accounts of their stay (Yung, 2000). Cambodian kings and dignitaries began to set up inscriptions to record their religious foundations towards the end of the 5th century AD (Higham, 2000:32). The inscriptions were written in Sanskrit, and in Old Khmer from 611 AD, and were for the most part engraved on monuments, door frames and walls associated with religious foundations. These records provide us with insight into the nature of kingship, political organization and socio-economic life of the Khmer in pre-Angkor times.
Brooks, Emma (2002): Selectivity Versus Availability. Patterns of Prehistoric Fish and Shellfish Exploitation at Triangle Flat, Western Golden Bay.
This thesis sets out to examine issues of selectivity and availability in fishing and shellfish gathering by pre-European Maori at Triangle Flat in western Golden Bay. Faunal remains from four archaeological sites have revealed new and valuable information about economic subsistence practices in this region.

It is proposed that exploitation of these important coastal resources was based on factors other than the availability of, or proximity to resource patches. Evidence from the Triangle Flat sites is compared to that from Tasman Bay and the southern North Island to gain a regional perspective on fishing and shellfish gathering strategies.

The most definitive evidence for selective targeting is provided by tuatua, an open beach species that has been found to dominate in sites based adjacent to tidal mud and sand flats. Also of interest is the dominance of mud snail in a site that is adjacent to large cockle and pipi beds. When regional sites were examined it was found that this pattern was also recorded for the site of Appleby in Tasman Bay.

Selectivity in fishing strategies is also apparent with red cod and barracouta dominating the Triangle Flat assemblages. This pattern conforms to evidence from both eastern Golden Bay and Tasman Bay but does not reflect evidence from the southern North Island. Of particular interest is the apparent dearth of snapper in the sites of Triangle Flat, since snapper abounds in the area today. An explanation based on climatic change is considered to be the most feasible. This indicates that environmental availability was at least in part responsible for the archaeological evidence of fishing. The consistency of the catch of red cod and barracouta in Golden Bay, and the pattern of shell fishing preferentially for tuatua suggests that cultural choice was also a significant selective factor.

Purdue, Carla (2002): What is a Fern-Root Beater? The correlation of museum artifacts and ethno-historical descriptions.
The rhizome of the bracken fern was an important part of the subsistence base of the pre-contact Maori of Aotearoa. It provided an essential source of starch - especially to the Southern Maori, who relied mainly upon wild resources for the vegetable component of their diet. The preparation of the rhizome (or fern-root) for consumption necessitated the beating of the cooked root upon a smooth stone anvil. The implement that was used to beat the fern-root is an important Maori tool which, until now, has had little detailed attention paid to it. Therefore, the aim of this research was to characterize the form of the fern-root beater using morphological attributes. Through the combination of a comprehensive literature review of ethnographic-historical accounts and more contemporary documentary research, along with a nationwide survey of implements labeled as “fern-root beaters” in museum collections, this thesis identifies a number of critical and common attributes that are inherent in a beating implement. It was found that wooden and stone beaters/pounders were dissimilar in size and proportions, with the majority of wooden implements of appropriate form to have been used for beating fern-root. The stone implements displayed larger circumference dimensions, were shorter and considerably heavier, thus casting some doubt on their practicality as a beating implement. Four distinct morphological forms were identified for both the wooden and stone items surveyed, and it was found that metric variables were more significant in suggesting function than non-metric. Regional distribution analysis of the survey implements highlighted a northern North Island predominance, particularly in the Northland, Auckland, Taranaki and Waikato regions. A tenuous comparison with Simpson’s distribution of prehistoric dental attrition known as the “fern-root plane” showed a loose regional correlation, however; the actual cause of this tooth wear is still a hotly contested issue.
Tanner, Vanessa (2002): An Analysis of Local Authority Implementation of Legislative Provisions for the Management and Protection of Archaeological Sites.
Local authorities are identified as playing a significant role in historic heritage management at the local level. The aim of this thesis was to determine whether local authorities are in a position to be given greater responsibility for historic heritage and particularly archaeological resource management. This thesis presents a discussion of the historical development of legislative provisions for the management and protection of historic heritage. Archaeological information is considered imperative for appropriate local authority management of archaeological resources; this thesis assesses the current state of archaeological information available to local authorities. In order to determine the role local authorities currently play, a questionnaire survey was designed to procure an understanding of what planners perceived their councils responsibility was and how they were actively managing historic heritage. To acquire an appreciation of the actual practice of historic heritage management two case studies were conducted. Case studies involved interviewing planners, members of the two communities and individuals who had first hand experience of the archaeological authority process.
Wheadon, Chris (2002): A Systemic Approach to Understanding Prehistoric Shell-Bearing Deposits in New Zealand: A Case Study from Shag Point, North Otago.
This thesis describes a systemic approach to the study of shell remains, using material from the site of Shag Point (J43 / 11), in North Otago. This approach analyses the relationship between sampling, identification, quantification, and site formation processes. An historical and methodological framework is used to assess the analysis of shell-bearing deposits in New Zealand, and provide innovative solutions to bias. Historical research outlines the common research methods in New Zealand, which are relevant to Shag Point. Methodological research outlines the range of potential research methods used in he study of shell-bearing deposits. Reviewing the data from Shag Point, sampling, identification, quantification, and site formation processes are used to assess the quality of data from the site. Data from coastal sites are commonly used to generate regional level syntheses. These syntheses do not deal with all of the possible sources of bias in shell-bearing deposits. Cumulative sampling is used to assess representativeness. The data from Shag Point are indicative of a representative sample. The site is compared to three other coastal southern South Island assemblages: the nearby Shag River Mouth, Pleasant River, and Pounawea. The data from Shag River Mouth may be representative; the same cannot be said for the Pleasant River and Pounawea archaeological assemblages, thus hampering regional-level syntheses.
2001
Bilton, Matthew (2001): Taphonomic Bias in Pacific Ichthyoarchaeological Assemblages: A Marshall Islands Example.
This thesis examines the influence of taphonomy on archaeological fish bone from the Pacific islands. Taphonomic studies investigate the effects of various agencies that can alter faunal remains from the point of an animals capture and death, dismemberment, cooking and disposal, to the subsequent post-depositional alterations, to archaeological analysis, and how these agencies and conditions influence the information used to make inferences of prehistoric human behaviour. Taphonomic research is well developed in the analysis of archaeological mammalian faunas, but not ichthyofaunas, particularly those related to the Pacific islands regions. As the inclusion of taphonomy in archaeological faunal analysis is critical to the integrity of interpretations made about prehistoric human behaviour, it is consequently vital to apply these principals to the interpretation of archaeological ichthyofauna.

The literature regarding ichthyofaunal taphonomy is reviewed and examples of taphonomic analysis are gleaned from the Pacific islands archaeological literature. A systematic methodology of breakage pattern analysis is devised that tests and evaluates the effects of taphonomic bias. This methodology is then applied to archaeological assemblages from Ebon Atoll, Marshall Islands, that contain in excess of 26,000 fish bones, of which approximately 3500 were identified to family. The specimens in this sample are well preserved, and due to the large diversity of taxa (47), are seen as being broadly representative of many Pacific islands ichthyofaunal assemblages. As such, it is proposed that taphonomic implication made about this sample will hold true for other Pacific islands assemblages.

The analysis of the Ebon assemblage confirmed that it is highly desirable to ascertain the extent of taphonomic loss from an ichthyofaunal assemblage prior to making any interpretations about prehistoric fishing, diet, or economy. The reliance on a small number of elements for identification to family limits the number of taxa identified and influences the relative abundance of taxa. With this in mind it is suggested that a number of elements that are not traditionally used to identify Pacific islands ichthyofauna be utilised. Those elements that cause abundance misrepresentation are identified, and the extent of this bias is assessed. It is determined that element shape is integral to subfamilial identification of the ‘five-paired mouthparts’, particularly the non-dentigerous elements. The bias of differential preservation is illustrated by the greater occurrence of durable than fragile elements, and it is proposed that the absence of certain taxa is not sufficient evidence of their nonexistence.
Chetwin, James (2001): War Before Angkor: The Evidential and Theoretical Context of Warfare in Prehistoric Thailand.
The role of warfare in prehistoric Thai life ways has been a topic of debate, although no studies have specifically sought to investigate and explain prehistoric warfare in Thailand. Recent advocacy of the heterarchic paradigm has sought to de-emphasise the role of warfare in sociopolitical change. This thesis seeks to develop a regional understanding of structured violence in Thai prehistory by developing a specific preliminary model for military behaviour in a heterarchic milieu.

An overview of definitions and anthropological theory on war is offered, as these issues are crucial to the debate over warfare in prehistoric Thailand. A methodology of military archaeology is developed and utilised to assess the evidence for warfare in the Thai Bronze and Iron Ages. Direct evidence for warfare in the Bronze Age is lacking, while the transition to the Iron Age is concomitant with a variety of changes in military technology and behaviour. There is evidence that warfare was a factor in the social environment of prehistoric Thailand, though comparative data show that it was not as intense or specialised as that practised by the Dian and Dong Son cultures of northern Southeast Asia.

A nonlinear model is proposed to account for the role of warfare in regionally specific historical hypotheses. The model is designed specifically to allow the construction of testable hypotheses in a heterarchic paradigm.
Dodd, Andrew (2001): Processes and Strategies for ‘Urban Historical’ Archaeological Resource Management in New Zealand.
Urban archaeological sites, and especially those of non-Maori origin, are constantly under threat of being destroyed or damaged as development pressures continue to increase in New Zealand. Previous reviews of the present system of ARM in New Zealand have found it to be ineffective and significant numbers of archaeological sites continue to be destroyed. New Zealand already has the legislative capacity for a comprehensive and effective system of archaeological resource management, but it is a general lack of public awareness, and often the reluctance of Local Authorities to apply available mechanisms, that let that system down. Five case studies have been selected from the Otago region that illustrate the issues involved in urban historic ARM on privately owned land. Under the current political climate the central government is increasingly devolving its responsibilities onto Local Governments, and recent reviews have suggested this may be appropriate for New Zealand’s ARM. The legislative systems in place in Australia and the United Kingdom can provide an indication of the effects of such a course of decentralization on archaeological site protection processes, as well as some useful insights into how New Zealand’s system might be made more effective.
2000
Gollop, Yvonne (2000): Racial Ranking Theories and Polynesian Prehistory.
From the first exploration of the Pacific by Europeans, its indigenous peoples were subject to comparison which culminated in classification and hierarchical ranking, particularly in the later nineteenth century and early twentieth century. The notion of ‘race’ acquired a validity due to the perceived static nature of human types. At the same time the identification of such traits as nose shape and hair form with particular ‘races’ allowed the recognition of mixed race individuals. This thesis argues that such racial ranking and fixity notions underpinned and influenced much archaeological research involving the Polynesian peoples. They exerted a constraining effect on debates such as those surrounding Maori origins and migrations, and Easter Island monumental relics. Their influence, applied through terminology and systems of classification, should alert contemporary researchers to the power of underlying models.
McCaw, Morag (2000): Iron Age Subsistence: The Faunal Remains from Noen U-Loke.
Noen U-Loke is a late Bronze and Iron Age settlement (c. 700/8 00 BC — 400 AD) in the Upper Mun River Valley, Northeast Thailand. Excavations in 1996-98 uncovered over 1000m3 of cultural material, representing the largest exposure of any such site in Southeast Asia. This dissertation will seek to identify the Iron Age environment and subsistence economy as revealed by faunal and molluscan remains. An evaluation of this leads to questions of procurement, processing techniques, mortuary rituals, characteristics of faunal populations, and regional continuity. Of particular interest were exploitation strategies and whether these changed through time. Identification of any temporal change in the relative abundance of species is important, especially if it correlates with other aspects of behaviour. The possible intensification of agricultural activities during the Iron Age will be investigated. Expansion in this area has a profound effect on the local environment; forest clearance and the creation of rice fields would have altered the local environment and water regime. Such a situation can be considered through the reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment.

Although the Noen U-Loke subsistence economy involved the exploitation of various wild species, including deer, cattle and water buffalo, domestic animals made up the largest proportion of the spectrum. The Bovid population was aged, which has led to questions of whether the animal’s value was measured in terms of status, tractive power, consumption, or ritual use. Mortuary offerings were dominated by Sus scrofa. Regional continuity has been identified in a number of other areas, including the characteristics of faunal populations and the species hunted and maintained. The specialised habitats of Pita ampullacea and Filupaludina allowed a partial reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment and identified a change during Layers 3 and 4 towards an environment suitable for rice cultivation. This correlates with the apparent gradual richness of the site, indicated by wealthy graves and an apparent intensification of agricultural activities seen in sickles in graves.

Miller, Kate (2000): Wai: Polynesian Responses to Lack of Drinking Water.
Without freshwater, human life would be impossible. Throughout human history, obtaining freshwater has structured human settlements and societies. Freshwater is a precious substance on the islands of Polynesia, but it has been neglected by scholars in favour of food; water has no caloric value. When water is discussed it is usually in relation to irrigation and food production. This dissertation puts freshwater at the centre of the enquiry into several aspects of Polynesian life. The climate of Polynesia and the geological characteristics of islands as they relate to the amount of freshwater available are discussed. The human body’s water regulating mechanisms are reviewed, along with the ways the body gets water and the problems of finding freshwater at sea. Two case studies (high island and atoll) are used to evaluate the water content of the traditional Polynesian diet and alternative Polynesian beverages are considered. Polynesian methods of collecting and storing freshwater are surveyed, along with bathing practices and spiritual attitudes towards water Polynesia’s ‘mystery islands’ are used as case studies to investigate the possible effects of a lack of water on islands already in a marginal situation.
Watson, Katharine (2000): Land of Plenty: Butchery Patterns and Meat Supply in Nineteenth Century New Zealand.
Historical archaeology in New Zealand, while yielding much faunal material, has done little with these remains beyond assess what was being consumed at a particular site. The methodology used to do this varies between site reports and is invariably not discussed in detail in the report. This focus on consumption ignores the potential uses to which faunal remains can be put, as demonstrated by work undertaken in the United States and Britain. Key foci in these countries include status, ethnicity, changes in the economy, agriculture and colonial adaptation. Using eight assemblages fromsites throughout New Zealand, analysis was undertaken using a standardised methodology in an endeavour to reveal something about patterns of meat consumption in nineteenth century New Zealand. The comparative approach used showed that the date a site was occupied and its location were the most important factors underlying the composition of the assemblage. There was some variation associated with site type, but not to the same extent. Documentary sources from Central Otago were analysed in detail to elucidate information on the network(s) of meat supply operating in nineteenth century New Zealand. The evidence gathered in the course of this work indicates that the meat component of the British settlers’ diet changed with settlement in New Zealand, albeit not to the same extent as the diet of the British who settled in the United States in earlier centuries. The extent and nature of the changes experienced related to the class of the settler and when they settled.
1999
Murdoch, Kyle (1999): Ethnohistoric Study of Voyaging in Central East Polynesia.
This thesis provides an ethnohistorical account of why and where people voyaged in protohistoric central East Polynesia. An ethnohistorical approach relies on the examination of historical documents produced by literate observers on aspects of an illiterate society in the protohistoric period. The protohistoric time frame is one that predates major cross-cultural change. This Ethnohistoric study of voyaging is an important study which complements prehistoric voyaging hypotheses and recorded ethnographic observations to provide accounts of immediate post-contact voyaging.

This study examines the voyaging strategies of three island groups: The Marquesas Islands, the Society Islands and the southern Cook Islands. The results of this ethnohistorical approach have found that voyaging in central East Polynesia was an intra-archipelago activity, although there was a strong tradition of long distance inter-archipelago voyaging. The study also found that although the motivations for voyaging were varied, every voyage was an expression of the intrinsic web of relationships in central East Polynesia. These findings concur with archaeological interpretations of this area and indicate that an ethnohistorical approach can complement and extend existing theories of voyaging strategies.