Archaeology

Smith, Teresa (1999): A Study of the Archaeological Fish Remains from Su’ena, Uki.
The intention of this research is to yield information concerning the prehistory of Su’ena. This site, located on the island of Uki in the Southeast Solomon Islands, was excavated in 1972 under the auspices of R. C. Green. Radiocarbon dates have placed the site at circa 1450 AD.

Detail of the excavation will be provided in conjunction with information regarding the stratigraphy and chronology. The site will also be placed in a temporal perspective within the prehistory of island Melanesia.

The focus of the analysis will be on a component of the archaeological faunal assemblage, the fishbone. A laboratory analysis of this material will help to give an insight into the subsistence systems and contribute to an understanding of prehistoric Su’ena fishing practices.

The place of the site in a regional perspective will also be carefully examined through a comparison of material recovered from nearby islands with that found on Uki. All of the above factors will be compiled to create the best possible scenario for the occupation history of Su’ena.

Wilson, Amanda (1999): Stone Tool Production at Cat’s Eye Point.
This thesis examines a lithe assemblage from Cats Eye Point (J42/4), Kakanui, North Otago, New Zealand. This Archaic site was excavated during 1996 and 1997 and the lithic assemblage was collected from 4lm2 excavated during these two seasons. Previous studies of lithic material from New Zealand and the Pacific are reviewed to indicate the range of information that can be gained from lithic analysis. Themes of research in the North Otago region are also examined to place Cat’s Eye Point into its regional context.

This thesis had three main areas of investigation. The first involved a descriptive and technological analysis of the debitage using mass flake analysis (MEA) and individual flake analysis (IFA). Formal artefacts, such as hammerstones, blanks, and preforms, were also examined. Secondly, spatial analysis was used to determine if the lithic assemblage could be used to infer intra-site activity areas. This was conducted by analysing macro- (flakes larger than 3mm) and micro debitage (flakes less than 3mm) by examining the range of material types. The third area of investigation examined debitage recovered from 6.4mm (1/4 inch) and 3.2mm (1/8 inch) sieves to determine if any significant technological information was gained by debitage from the 3.2mmsieve.

The conclusions of this study indicate that there were two methods of basalt cobble reduction at Cat’s Eye Point for adze production. Adze production at Cats Eye Point was opportunistic and the non-local material curated. The results of the debitage analysis indicate that the entire sequence of adze manufacture did not occur in the excavated area of Cat’s Eye Point and initial cobble reduction probably occurred on the adjacent beach where the cobbles are found today. Consequently, coastal rock outcrops, even without evidence of associated debitage, must be viewed as potential sources of rock for stone tool manufacture unless determined otherwise. The spatial analysis detected two activity areas and a disposal area at Cats Eye Point. The analysis of the 6.4mm and 3.2mm debitage found that no significant technological information was gained by examining the smaller flakes.
1998
Fraser, Karen (1998): Fishing for Tuna in Pacific Prehistory.
The archaeological evidence from faunal analyses in the Pacific suggests an emphasis on inshore fish and fishing strategies. In contrast, the faunal evidence for offshore fish such as tuna is slight. Several sites in East Polynesia with high proportions of tuna are unusual in this regard. Yet ethnographic accounts of fishing in the Pacificregion often contain detailed descriptions of offshore fishing expeditions to catch pelagic fish, including tuna. These fish continue to occupy a significant place in the cu1tural life of many Pacific island communities.

The uneven representation of tuna in archaeological sites is not thought to derive from any known taphonomic process, but fairly represents the relative abundance of tuna in catches throughout the Pacific. Discontinuities in catch frequency do not follow any known variations in natural abundance, and the preferred explanation is cultural choice. Moreover, in sites where tuna were a major component of the catch, there appears to be a small but consistent decline in their relative abundance, once again believed to reflect culture-historical rather than natural processes. The ethnographic and archaeological evidence is reviewed for several areas in the Pacific where tuna were more commonly caught. The evidence from faunal analyses is considered for four archaeological sites, Hane and Te Anapua in the Marquesas Islands, Fa’ahia in the Society Islands and Motupore in Papua New Guinea, where tuna were caught in relatively high abundance. Techniques are described for reconstructing size-frequency information from archaeological bones from these sites. It is argued that the social importance as well as economic aspects of tuna fishing need to be incorporated in explanations for the presence of tuna in archaeological sites.

Grogan, Dean (1998): The Analysis of Glassware from New Zealand Historic Sites.
Currentlythere are a wide variety of methodologies in use for the analysis of glassware from New Zealand historic sites. Different methodological approaches and ways of presenting results mean that material from different sites cannot be accurately compared at any but the most basic level. The object of this thesis is to develop a standardised, thorough, and repeatable methodology for the quantification of glassware, particularly glass bottles, from New Zealand’s historic assemblages in order that more detailed comparisons may be undertaken.

Development of this methodology entailed a review of previous glass analyses and the selection and the testing of many of these procedures on the glassware assemblage from the 1860’s goldmining site of German Hill in Central Otago, New Zealand. The outcome of the analysis showed that it was possible to arrive at a range of results when using different quantification methods on the same assemblage, which has serious implications for any detailed comparisons between sites.

The German Hill material was compared using statistical testing methods to assemblages from six other sites from around New Zealand. Despite differences between methodologies and presentation of data, these comparisons showed the potential for information that may be gained from detailed comparisons of this type, which so far have not been undertaken to any real extent in New Zealand historic archaeology. It is thought that a standardised methodology could act to encourage more comparisons of this type, which would allow the more accurate study of the differences in social and economic conditions between historical sites.
Somerville-Ryan, Graeme (1998): The Taphonomy of a Marshall Islands’ Shell Midden.
Shellfish dominates the faunal material recovered from Pacific archaeological middens, yet little work has been conducted regarding the reasons for shell being present on a site. This has lead to problems in separating natural and culturally-deposited shell from archaeological assemblages, especially from areas where coral gravel has traditionally been used to pave habitation areas.

Unless the depositional history of a site is known, some archaeological inferences can be erroneous. The goal of this thesis is to study the taphonomy of archaeological shell as well as shell from modem beach and village environments to identify the characteristics of natural and cultural material.

This research has shown that it is possible to use the taphonomic features of burning, water-rounding, the rebreakage of water-rounded shell, butchering, fragmentation, and the presence of whole shells to identify natural shell in a cultural assemblage. It is significant that some species, such as Turbinellidae and Cerithiidae, are almost always the product of cultural deposition and are ideal taxa for radiocarbon dating. Inferences regarding subsistence practices from these species provide a more accurate representation of prehistoric cultural activity. Future research should recognise that the quality of data differs between shellfish species and archaeologists should be mindful of this when undertaking subsistence studies and selecting shells for radiocarbon dating.
1997
Brooks, Amanda (1997): An Ethnoarchaeological Investigation of Mitiaro, Cook Islands.
The aim of the archaeologist is to investigate a culture’s material remains and from this data attempt to understand numerous social, political, economic and cultural aspects of that society. Often assumptions about social organisation, population size and political structure are deducted from rigorous mapping and analysis of material remains and their spatial patterning. However there is always that element of uncertainty involved when making these assumptions. One particular uncertainty is whether social and political systems are reflected in the material culture of a society to the extent which is required to give the archaeologist a basis for their assumptions, and if so whether that information can be successfully retrieved using archaeological methods. Therefore when given the opportunity to analyse a living society which is in a relatively isolated setting and still has evident bonds with its traditional background, I felt that this could be an important step in, ascertaining the extent to which socio-political structure could be understood from material remains. Utilising the method of ethroarchaeology I was able to analyse the living society of Mitiaro in the Cook Islands using the archaeological techniques which would also be used on the archaeological remains on the island. My particular focus was the spatial organisation of this one community which is made up of three tribal groups. The people of Mitiaro maintain a strong link to the traditional values and ideas of their ancestors. The society is based on a hierarchical socio-political system with its grounding in genealogy and the traditional land tenure system. There is also a more modem political system based on that of New Zealand and the way these two systems interact together enhances the power of tradition in this society.

My results proved interesting for both the archaeologist and the ethnoarchaeologist, however the one predominant factor which did come across is the wealth of information available through this approach and the necessity for further investigations of living communities within the Pacific region.

Widdicombe, Helen (1997): The Cutting Edge: A Technological Study of Adzes from Ebon, Maloelap and Ujae Atolls, Marshall Islands.
The purpose of this thesis is to form a typology for a collection of Marshallese adzes and compare the differences between the collections from Ebon and Maloelap atolls.

The raw materials used fall into five groups: Adzes made out of the interior of the giant clam, Tridacna gigas, abbreviated TRI-INT, adzes made from the exterior of the elongate giant clam, Tridacna maxima (TRI-EXT), adzes made from the lip of the helmet shells (cassidae), adzes made from the body whorl of cassidae, conches (Lambis species) and cone shells (Conus species) and adzes made from the auger or turret shells (Terebra maculata or Mitra mitt-a). A series of metric and discrete attributes were recorded for each adze, and these were used to form the typology. Cross section, orientation of the bevel, and shape of the bevel are the most useful features for defining types. Types can include more than one kind of raw material but the majority of types are made from one main raw material group.

There is no significant difference between the proportion of each adze type recovered from Ebon and Maloelap atolls, except that TRI-INT types are more common on Ebon. The only two Terebra adzes are also from Ebon and adzes made from the lip of the homed helmet shell, Cassis cornuta, are more common on Maloelap. There were too few adzes from Ujae to include this atoll in the regional comparison.

As the largest Tridacna species is not known from Maloelap it is not surprising that adzes made from Tridacna gigas are rare there. According to the species range of the bulls mouth helmet (Cypraecassis rufa) this species should not be found in the Marshall Islands, but it is so widespread that it must have been more common in the past than the modern geographic range indicates.

In conclusion, my typology presented in this thesis adequately classifies Marshallese adzes and there are no significant differences between the assemblages from Ebon and Maloelap Atolls. My classification of Marshallese shell adzes should have utility for other assemblages throughout the Pacific where shell adzes are found.
Thomas, Tim (1997): The Practice of Colonization in East Polynesia.
This thesis takes a critical look at recent archaeological conceptions of colonization of East Polynesia. Firstly, the main conceptual models of colonization that are prominent in the literature today, are examined. The models themselves are critically discussed, followed by an investigation into their theoretical underpinnings. Problems with these approaches lead to the suggestion of a different strategy towards developing an understanding of the way in which prehistoric Polynesians situated themselves spatially through the process of colonization. This involves viewing colonization as a practice that is situated in a historical and material context - it is seen to be bound up in structures of power and ideology, and is a reflection and a result of a society's desires, cares, and perceptions. Central to the thesis is an exploration of the role of the landscape in the colonization of Polynesia. The rather ambiguous term 'landscape' is understood here to refer to a social construction of space, involving a collection of practices, meanings, attitudes and values. As such it is the basis for a humanistic understanding of the environment and its role in the spatial distribution of people. The above approach is worked through in practice in the interpretation of various archaeological, ethnographic, and statistical data relevant to Polynesian colonization. These interpretations lead to the conclusion that the colonization of East Polynesia is a making of place, a process by which the landscape is imbued with meaning and significance. Throughout the process of colonization social identity was bound to and associated with specific locations at an increasingly local level - it represents a 'settling down', a domestication. This was achieved through the interplay of various and conflicting ideological arguments. In the tensions created through the struggles for control over mobility, access and land we see these ideologies play out.
1996
Dickson, Joanna (1996): The Visual Representation of the Maori in the School Journal 1907-95.
This thesis concerns the visual representation of the Maori in illustrations featured in the School Journal, Bulletins, Maori Language Readers, and Remedial Readers published by the New Zealand Department of Education from 1907-96. The main focus is to examine how the prehistory of Aotearoa has been presented to the public. For this reason School Journals were chosen  as they have been a resource available to all school children for almost a century, and reflect changing theories on prehistory from colonisation to subsistence stategies. I consider that these theories can be incorporated into illustrations which can be just as significant, or even more powerful, than text in transmitting information (and sometimes culture-bound values) to the public about past Maori lifeways.

I examined specific areas such as the representation of Maori physiognomy, representation of gender and ethnicity, material culture, and activities in illustrations and photographs to create an overview of how the Maori have been depicted and question how closely these representations adhere to reality.

Martin, David R. (1996): The Maori Whare After Contact.
This study explores post-contact changes to the ordinary Maori whare. The main physical characteristics of the ordinary whare at contact are identified by accessing archaeological and written 18th century ethnographic data. Changes in the ordinary whare in the period from contact to 1940 are discussed. Evidence from historical archaeology, written 19th century ethnographic accounts and from previous academic research is considered. In addition, changes in the ordinary whare are highlighted, based on evidence from an empirical survey of whare depicted in sketches, paintings, engravings and photographs. Rigorous statistical analysis was beyond the scope of a Master's thesis, however trends in the data are presented. A range of these are reproduced illustrating the text. After changing gradually for 130 years, the ordinary Maori whare appears to have been widely replaced by European-style houses in the early decades of the 20th century. In Aotearoa/New Zealand in the 1990s, it is apparent that Maori culture has survived the 220 or so years since contact. These years entailed increasing contact between Maori and European. In mid 20th century academic studies of Maori communities, European-style houses were found to have been used in line with continuing Maori conceptions. This evidence indicates that traditional ideas were transferred to European-style houses. The gradual changes in the whare prior to the 20th century indicate that it as a conservative social construction of space conforming to expectations about vernacular architecture generally. But the process by which Maori culture was maintained and reproduced was complicated by the widespread change to houses of European style. It is concluded that further study of Maori conceptions of space within the home is required.
Palmer, Rachel S. (1996): Archaeology and Ethnicity of Settlement in Nineteenth Century South Otago.
This thesis looks at the expression of ethnicity in the archaeological record, through an analysis of domestic architecture in South Otago, an area settled predominantly by Scottish immigrants. At one level this study is concerned with broad anthropological questions about the nature of ethnicity and the extent to which it can be recognized through the archaeological record. At another it is concerned with details of the history of a specific region of New Zealand, as part of the increasing interest in material evidence for European colonization.

Based on a sample of 269 dwellings and 43 other buildings collected from historical sources and field surveys throughout South Otago, it compares the differences between Scottish and non-Scottish dwellings. It shows that over the period from 1840 to the end of the 1920s immigrants built and lived in the same types of dwellings, and used the same construction materials, despite their nationality. If immigrants carried mental constructs about how a house should be built, they were not able to translate it into the physical product. Local factors were a stronger selection pressure than cultural background, as ethnicity was suppressed in the domestic architecture of South Otago. Nevertheless a strong Scottish local flavour developed in most other areas of daily life, through their relationship to the land, religion, education, literature, music and recreation. The pattern of domestic architecture in South Otago instead mirrored development throughout the colony, to form part of the vernacular architecture of New Zealand.

Petchey, Peter G. (1996): Otago Water Wheels. The Industrial Archaeology of Water Wheels in Otago.
This thesis is an investigation into the industrial archaeology of water power, specifically water wheels, in Otago, New Zealand. An archaeological site survey of some thirty-seven nineteenth and early twentieth century water-powered industrial sites is used as the basis of an investigation of the technology adopted in Otago, the origins of that technology and the mechanisms by which it came to be found here.

What at first appears to be a British technology directly transplanted to Colonial New Zealand, on closer examination proves to be the product of local and international influences and developments on a technology that can be traced directly back to the Hellenistic world of the first century BC. While the British influence was strong, what appears in Otago is a unique adaptation of an international technology to a new environment.

1995
Clark, Geoffrey R. (1995): The Kuri in Prehistory: a Skeletal Analysis of the Extinct Maori Dog.
Skeletal remains of the prehistoric New Zealand dog, the kuri, are frequently recovered from archaeological sites. Despite their relative ubiquity only one major study, and the last for twenty five years, has been conducted. That work provided limited anatomical and osteometric information and concluded that the kuri population was homogenous through space and across time.

This study set out to provide a more detailed skeletal description and to investigate the question of population homogeneity by examining kuri skeletal material from five museums and two university anthropology departments. Metric and non-metric data was collected from a total of thirty seven archaeological sites from throughout New Zealand.

Variation within the population was established by comparing coefficients of variation across a number of variables. A program of univariate and multivariate analysis was carried out to examine spatial and temporal variation.

Results showed that the appendicular skeleton of the kuri has the highest levels of variation. Smaller limb shaft dimensions of late prehistoric kuri are thought to be due to a reliance on insufficient quantities of marine foods. Tooth wear analysis of late prehistoric dogs showed that they had severe tooth wear compared to 'Archaic' dogs.

Edgar, Philip G. (1995): Ideological Choice in the Gravestones of Dunedin's Southern Cemetery.
Gravestones occupying the Presbyterian portion of Dunedin's Southern cemetery were interpreted within their archaeological context as the outcome of the influence of both social relations between the living and relations between the living and the dead in Dunedin's history. Two hundred and nine gravestones erected between 1858 and 1959 were recorded, their attributes analysed and associations between these attributes and value of family burial plots offered. The cemetery is seen as partaking in the ideology of Social Darwinism in the late 19th century while the visual reduction in social stratification which takes place in the cemetery in the early 20th century reinforced the egalitarian ethos espoused by the Liberal government and the community at this time.
Mitchell, Janet (1995): Changing Food Habits of New Zealanders of European Descent 1870-1970: an Anthropological Examination of the Mechanisms of Cultural Change.
Between 1870 and 1970 both the culture and food habits of New Zealand European society underwent change. In the past food habits have been examined using either an historical approach or consumption and nutritional data. These approaches however have not explained how change has occurred. Anthropologists working in other countries have approached this problem in several different ways. A structural approach to meals and the meal system gives answers to why food habits are slow to change. But this approach does not address change. A sociological approach which takes account of changes in the society explains how the interplay of societal factors can cause change but it does not account for the stability of food habits over long periods. This study combines these approaches to give an answer to the phenomenon of stability and change which characterised European New Zealanders' food habits from 1870-1970.

Evidence of change in food habits and in the culture was linked to changing social conditions, ideas about food and changes in technology. Material on the topic was collected from written sources - in particular recipe books were found to be a valuable tool.

In this study the evidence established that while all of the factors mentioned above played a role in the transformation of food habits in European New Zealand society, substantive change at any one time was linked to the social conditions that influenced women's role in the household.
1994
Hood, David (1994): A Social History of Archaeology in New Zealand.
Consideration of the degree to which social factors have influenced the development of archaeology has become a recent focus of interest among archaeologists; however little work has been done on determining the relationship of social factors to archaeology in New Zealand. The aim of this thesis is to consider whether archaeologists were influenced by the surrounding New Zealand society between the years 1840 and 1954 and if so, in what manner were they influenced. In particular, consideration is given to how the social background of New Zealand archaeology compared with the social influences of British archaeology of the time.

For the purposes of the study the term archaeologist applies to all those who investigated or recovered in situ archaeological material. Lists of archaeologists of the day were complied from journals, newspaper articles, and unpublished sources. From these lists the social background of those engaging in archaeology was reconstructed.

Developments in archaeological theory and methodology were also examined, not only to determine the manner in which they effected the practise of archaeology, but also to determine the source of those developments, and the reasons for their adoption.

The wider social context was also examined to determine the degree to which archaeology reflected certain factors in New Zealand society, not simply in the manner in which archaeology was carried out, but also in the reasons for which research was conducted.

This study demonstrates that though the discipline, and in particular the power, was concentrated among urban professionals, the social spread of those engaging in archaeology was wide. This was particularly the case between the turn of the century and the Second World War, when archaeologists with a tertiary background were in a minority.

Archaeologists were influenced both from inside and outside the field, the degree of influence being determined by individual factors.

As archaeologists were a part of society, so too was society part of archaeological practice. In the manner in which archaeology was conducted the influence of societal attitudes towards women and Maori can be seen.