corresponding proportion for the proces-
sing of aquaculture products is only 10%.
Several studies also demonstrate that
while aquaculture often has the potential
to generate a lot of employment region-
ally, this potential is probably rarely rea-
lised because of necessary trade-offs
among developmental objectives. Hence,
El-Gayar and Leung (2001) analyse
aquaculture development in Northern
Egypt in a multi-criteria decision-making
model with three objectives: employ-
ment, supply of fish, and foreign
exchange earnings. The model estimates
that adopting a strategy to maximise
employment from aquaculture would cre-
ate over 5000 jobs. By contrast, if either
regional availability of fish or foreign
exchange earnings were maximised,
then job creation would fall to 3,500 or
1,200 respectively. Martinez-Cordero and
Leung (2004) also find trade-offs between
employment and other objectives in
aquaculture development in Northwest
Mexico, albeit of lesser significance than
in the previous study of Egypt.
Increased supply of fish
for consumption
by the poor
Increased fish supply for consumption by
the poor is an often-cited rationale for pro-
moting aquaculture in LDCs (Edwards,
2000; Ahmed and Lorica, 2002).
The expected direct effect of an increase
in supply of fish is a decrease in the price
for protein in local markets. In addition to
the direct decrease in price of the farmed
fish, substitutions in consumption imply
that the price of other sources of protein
(
e.g.
beans; small, wild-caught fish) is also
expected to decline. Those combined
price effects should benefit the poor dis-
proportionately as the poor spend a
greater percentage of their income on
food. Indirect, more long-term positive
nutritional and health effects of an
increase in protein intake by the poor
are also expected but difficult to attribute
to aquaculture, given the complexity and
timescales associated with these causal
links.
The reality may be more complex than
suggested by the above argument,
because “fish” is not a homogenous com-
modity: there are different classes of pro-
ducts from alternative sources and differ-
ent classes of consumers. However,
demand for fish can be analysed econo-
metrically at a disaggregated level, as has
been done by Dey (2000) and Garcia
et al.
(2005) for Bangladesh and the Philippines
respectively. Both papers establish that
the demand for fish is elastic and, more
directly relevant to our investigation, Gar-
cia
et al.
(2005) find that there is consider-
able price responsiveness of demand for
tilapia and milkfish (the two main domes-
tically consumed aquaculture species in
the Philippines) from lower income
groups. This supports the idea that a
reduction in the price of farmed fish
achieved through further aquaculture
development improves the welfare of
the poor.
Poor farmers integrating
aquaculture
into small agricultural farms
The rationale for considering the integra-
tion of agriculture into small agricultural
farms separately from outright adoption
is that integration might produce synergis-
tic effects that increase the overall effi-
ciency of the farming system. The pres-
ence of a pond on a small farm may
therefore provide secondary benefits to
the farmer (
e.g.
through nutrient cycling,
water storage for irrigation, etc.) in addi-
tion to the income gained from the pond
directly, which together can significantly
raise farm incomes. There is also the
potential for fish culture in rice paddies
during wet season floods (Berg 2002;
Dey
et al.
, 2005).
However, there has been a lack of empir-
ical evidence to support the claims made
on behalf of integrated aquaculture-
agriculture: the agenda, it seems, has
been supported somewhat uncritically
by ICLARM / WorldFish Center in particu-
lar, as a means to enhancing smallholder
incomes and ensuring efficient use of nat-
ural resources by effective nutrient
cycling. The paper by Prein
et al.
(1998)
is the exception to this rule, as the authors
provide evidence from three case-study
countries – Ghana, Malawi and the Philip-
pines – to demonstrate the tangible ben-
efits of integration. In Ghana, Prein
et al.
(1998) find that families increased their
protein intake from 60% of recommended
levels, to 120%, following integration of
aquaculture on their farms. In Malawi,
households were able to stabilise or
slightly increase their supply of food and
cash crops in a year (1992) of drought and
a currency devaluation of 20%. In the Phi-
lippines case study, the authors compared
farm-level performance before and after
integration of aquaculture into the farm-
ing system against four sustainability indi-
cators: net income, resource system
capacity, species diversity, and biore-
source cycling. All four indicators showed
significant increases following the adop-
tion of aquaculture by farmers, suggesting
that integration increases sustainability
and that there are no trade-offs among
ecological and economic objectives in
this case, although there is no measure
of whether the farms under study were
those of poor families. More generally,
the literature provides little evidence on
the barriers to adoption of aquaculture by
poor farmers in LDCs, with most studies in
aquaculture economics focusing on the
adoption of particular technologies by
existing aquaculturists (
e.g.
Sevilleja,
2002; Rauniyar, 1998). The significance
of this gap in the literature is highlighted
by Ahmed and Lorica (2002, p. 138): “At
the current level of adoption income
effects are still modest, but, given the
high profitability, the potential for much
higher impacts on household income
does exist, suggesting that it is crucial to
understand the constraints to more inten-
sive adoption by the farm households”.
Negative outcomes
Conversion or privatisation
of land for aquaculture
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