Local loops, otherwise known as “Last Mile” or “distribution” networks are those networks which
connect end-users to central switching facilities, and through those, to the backbone or transport networks.
These last mile networks were traditionally copper, in recent years have also been provided by cable
television networks, and in the context of next generation access networks are increasingly fibre. Last mile
networks can also be wireless.
future-proof fibre network given its flexibility to handle most new bandwidth intensive
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applications while allowing for relatively easy upgrading of speeds. While more expensive than
other alternatives, such as point to multipoint fibre-to-the-home, some operators believe that in
the longer term point-to-point FTTH may be more cost effective. This architecture also has the
competitive advantage in that it permits full unbundling, allowing new entrants to connect at the
central office (as at present with DSL technology).
Passive optical Networks (PON) fibre-to the-home: PON networks differ from P2P-FTTH in that
they use one fibre to connect multiple end customers so that fibre is shared by users. Cheaper
than point-to-point FTTH, PON central switches require more logic and encryption to integrate
and separate customer streams. There are three successive iterations for PON standards:
APON/BPON, GPON and EPON. They differ in terms of downstream/upstream speeds and their
maximum reach. In those countries where LLU is mandated, the way PON networks are
constructed is important from the policy and regulatory perspective since they influence the
extent to which these networks can be made available to other service providers and therefore the
development of competition.
At the moment GPON appears to be obtaining the favour of major operators, while P2P is the
preferred option in citywide projects.
As shown in Figure 3 there are three basic ways to construct a PON network (although hybrid forms
of PON can be envisaged):
i). Fibre can be split close to the home/building where a splitter is installed to connect the
home/building. This architecture makes it difficult for other operators to share infrastructure
through local loop unbundling, limiting sharing to wholesale broadband access.
ii). Fibre can be split at a street cabinet and from there individual fibres connect each
household/building. Unbundling can take place at the street cabinet for individual houses but
would need to take place at the building for apartment blocks.
iii). The network is constructed as a point-to-point network and can be used as a PON or P2P network
at the local exchange.
To the extent that a country has determined to rely on unbundling to promote competition, a P2P-
FTTH network offers more technological options to implement unbundling than alternative fibre network
configurations, some of which can limit the technological options for unbundling as compared to legacy
networks. The network topology (B) in Figure 3 requires new entrants to invest up to the street cabinet
(for individual homes) or up to the apartment building (unless they can obtain all the residents in a building
as customers at the same time. Topology (A) only allows wholesale broadband access for new entrants.
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