LIST OF FIGURES
xiv
Figure 1.1. Schematics of epigenetic modifications (a) and reversible changes in
chromatin organization (b) that influence the gene expression.................
2
Figure 1.2. DNA methylation can silence genes by either direct (a) or indirect
mechanisms (b) ......................................................................................
4
Figure 1.3. The MECP2 gene (a) and its protein product (MeCP2A) with conserved
domains (b) ............................................................................................
11
Figure 1.4. Mechanisms of methylation dependent (a) and independent (b)
transcription regulation and chromatin remodeling .................................
15
Figure 1.5. Regulation of imprinted regions through formation of a silent chromatin
loop (a) Transcriptionally inactive (b) active conformation ....................
16
Figure 1.6. Regulation of alternative splicing by MeCP2; (a) RNA splicing in the
presence of MeCP2 and (b) aberrant splicing in the absence of MeCP2 ..
16
Figure 1.7. MeCP2 target genes and their relevance with the disease .......................
20
Figure 1.8. A schematic diagram of a normal female breast .....................................
21
Figure 1.9. Simplified multi-step model of breast cancer progression based on
morphological features ...........................................................................
24
Figure 1.10. View of breast carcinogenesis from a DNA methylation standpoint .......
25
Figure 1.11. Model for mechanism of global genome nucleotide-excision repair and
transcription-coupled repair ...................................................................
30
xv
Figure 1.12. Schematic representations of conserved domains in hHR23A (a) and
hHR23B (b) proteins ..............................................................................
31
Figure 1.13. Thyroid hormone cascade ......................................................................
36
Figure 1.14. Alignment of the TTF2 forkhead DNA-binding domain with selected
human FOX representatives ...................................................................
38
Figure 1.15. Three-dimentional structure of the forkhead domain of FoxC2 (mouse) .
39
Figure 1.16. Nucleotide sequence of the human TTF2 gene and deduced amino acid
sequence ................................................................................................
41
Figure 4.1. Schematic representation of primer positions on MECP2 gene nucleotide
sequence ................................................................................................
63
Figure 4.2. Semi-nested PCR strategy showing the primers and PCR cycling
conditions used to investigate the methylation status of hHR23 genes ....
69
Figure 5.1. PCR-RFLP analysis for the detection of the common MECP2 mutations
in patients R17 (a), R24 (b), R6 (c), R29 (d), and R16 (e) ......................
73
Figure 5.2. Schematic representation of the MeCP2 (a) and MECP2 gene (b) showing
the position of the mutations identified in this study ...............................
75
Figure 5.3. SSCP gels showing altered migration patterns for patients R3 (a), R2 (b),
R8 (c), R46 (d), and R47 (e) with novel MECP2 gene mutations ............
76
Figure 5.4. Chromatograms showing sequencing profiles of sense (left panel) and
antisense (right panel) strands of MECP2 gene for the novel mutations
identified in the present study ................................................................
77
xvi
Figure 5.5. A representative Real Time analysis for a healthy female (a), R5 with
exon 3 deletion (b), and R19 with exon 3 duplication (c), respectively ...
80
Figure 5.6. The plots of quantitative Real Time PCR and QF-PCR analyses results .
82
Figure 5.7. A representative QF-PCR analysis for a healthy female (a), R5 with
exon 3 deletion (b), and R19 with exon 3 duplication (c), respectively ...
83
Figure 5.8. QF-PCR analysis of patient R33 ............................................................
84
Figure 5.9. X chromosome inactivation analysis of patients with skewed (a),
random (b), and non-informative (c) XCI pattern, respectively ...............
84
Figure 5.10. Agarose gel electrophoresis showing the prenatal diagnosis performed
in the families of the patient R29 with p.T158M (a), patient R42 with
p.L386Hdel12 (b), and patient R69 with p.R255X mutations (c) ............
86
Figure 5.11. Agarose gel electrophoresis of multiplex ARMS PCR assay products ....
89
Figure 5.12. A representative multiplex ARMS-PCR assay analysis ..........................
89
Figure 5.13. Evaluation of the multiplexed ARMS-PCR assay using RTT patient
samples with known mutations ..............................................................
90
Figure 5.14. The summary of the Real Time PCR analysis of MECP2 exon 3
rearrangements using 0.1 – 200 ng DNA ................................................
95
Figure 5.15. The profile of the amplification products of sample R5 with different
concentrations of template DNA ............................................................
95
Figure 5.16. Melting curve analysis for PCR products of sample R5 using 0.1, 10, 50,
200 ng DNA ..........................................................................................
95
xvii
Figure 5.17. MethPrimer program output showing the CpG islands and the
investigated region at 5’ of the hHR23A gene ........................................
97
Figure 5.18. MethPrimer program output showing the CpG island and the
investigated sequence in 5’ flanking region of hHR23B gene .................
97
Figure 5.19. Agarose gel electrophoresis showing the quality of the genomic DNAs
isolated from paraffin embedded tissues .................................................
98
Figure 5.20. Methylation analysis of 5’ flanking region of the hHR23A gene ............ 100
Figure 5.21. Bisulfite sequencing of 5’flanking region of hHR23A gene in tumor
adjacent tissue of patient Rad31 ............................................................. 101
Figure 5.22. Bisulfite sequencing of 5’flanking region of hHR23A gene in tumor
tissue of patient Rad31 ........................................................................... 102
Figure 5.23. Chromatogram showing the bisulfite sequencing of 5’flanking region
of hHR23B gene in the tumor tissue of patient Rad22 ............................ 104
Figure 5.24. Methylation analysis of 5’ flanking region of the hHR23B gene ............ 106
Figure 5.25. Axial postcontrast CT image of the patient reveals a slightly enlarged
thyroid gland (arrows) in the paratracheal region with absent contrast
enhancement (a). Comparative imaging of the thyroid gland (arrows) in
a healthy 9-yr-old child (b) .................................................................... 111
Figure 5.26. DNA sequencing profile of the TTF-2 gene showing mutation in
homozygous condition in the patient (a). Her unaffected mother is
heterozygous for the mutation (b) ........................................................... 111
Figure 5.27. Alignment of the TTF-2 forkhead DNA-binding domain with selected
FOX proteins between species (a) and within human proteins (b) ........... 112
xviii
Figure 5.28. Two per cent agarose gel showing AlwNl digestion results for the patient
and her family members ......................................................................... 113
Figure 5.29. Sau3AI (upper panel) and Alul (lower panel) digestion analyses for the
patient and her parents (C: normal individual) ........................................ 114
xix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1. The list of methylated genes in breast cancer ...........................................
26
Table 3.1. Sequence of the primers used for exon amplification of the MECP2
gene sequence ........................................................................................
48
Table 3.2. Primers used in X chromosome inactivation analysis .............................
49
Table 3.3. Sequences and PCR conditions for the primers used in quantitative Real
Time PCR analysis .................................................................................
49
Table 3.4. Sequence of the primers used in quantitative fluoresent multiplex PCR
analysis ..................................................................................................
49
Table 3.5. Sequence of the primers used in methylation analyses of the putative
promoter region of hHR23A and hHR23B genes ...................................
50
Table 3.6. Sequence of the primers used for exon amplification of the TTF2 gene ..
50
Table 3.7. Sequence of the primers used for exon amplification of the BChE gene .
51
Table 4.1. The list of the MECP2 gene mutations analyzed by PCR-RFLP method .
58
Table 4.2. Primer sequences and concentrations used in the two panels for
multiplexed ARMS-PCR assay ..............................................................
64
Table 5.1. The age, gender, and clinical and genetic features of the first group of
47 patients .............................................................................................
78
Table 5.2. Quantitative Real Time PCR and QF-PCR analyses result........................
81
xx
Table 5.3. Mean Phenotypic Severity Scores of the female patients of first group ...
87
Table 5.4. Ct values obtained from real time PCR analysis on different amounts
of DNA ..................................................................................................
92
Table 5.5. Methylation analysis results for the 5’ flanking region of hHR23A .........
99
Table 5.6. Results of methylation analysis for 5’ flanking region of hHR23B .......... 105
Table 5.7. The histopathological and epigenetic findings of the tumor tissue
analyzed in this study ............................................................................. 107
xxi
LIST OF SYMBOLS / ABBREVIATIONS
R
Arginine
T4
Thyroxine
W
Tryptophan
X
Stop
5meC
5- methyl cytosine
APS
Ammoniumpersulfate
ARMS
Amplification refractory mutation system
AS
Angelman syndrome
BChE
Butyrylcholinesterase
BDNF
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor
BER
Base excision repair
Bp
Base pair
BSA
Bovine serum albumine
C
Cysteine
cAMP
Cyclic adenosine 5’-monophosphate
CDKL5
cyclin-dependent kinase like 5
cDNA
Complementary deoxyribonucleic acid
CH
Congenital hypothyroidism
CNS
Central nervous system
CT
Computed tomography
CREB
Cyclic AMP-responsive element binding
CRH
Corticotropin-releasing hormone
DCIS
Ductal carcinoma in situ
DLX5
Distal-less homeobox 5
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
DNMT
DNA methyltransferase
dNTP
Deoxynucleosidetriphosphate
ECG
Electrocardiography
EEG
Electroencephalogram
xxii
H
Histone
FHD
Forkhead domain
Fkbp5
FK506-binding protein 5
GG-NER
Global genome nucleotide excision repair
GST
Glutathione S-transferase
HATs
Histone acetyltransferases
HDACs
Histone deacetylases
IDC
Invasive (infiltrating) ductal carcinoma
ILC
Invasive lobular carcinomas
KD
Knockdown
KO
Knockout
LCIS
Lobular carcinoma in situ
LTP
Long-term potentiation
MBD
Methyl binding domain
MDM2
Mouse double minute 2
MECP2
methyl-CpG-binding protein 2
Mecp2
mause methyl-CpG-binding protein 2
Mecp2
_/_
Mecp2
-null female
Mecp2
_/y
Mecp2
-null male
MgCl
2
Magnesium Chloride
mM
Milimolar
mRNA
Messenger ribonucleic acid
MRX
X-linked mental retardation
NER
Nucleotide excision repair
NIS
Sodium iodide transporter
NLS
Nuclear localization signals
Nm
nanometer
OD
260
Optical density at 260 nm
PAGE
Poly acrylamide gel electrophoresis
PChE
Pseudocholinesterase
PCR
Polymerase chain reaction
PRNP
Prion protein
PSV
Preserved speech variant
xxiii
QF-PCR
Quantitative fluorescent multiplex PCR
RBC
Red blood cell
RNA
Ribonucleic acid
ROS
Reactive oxygen species
Rpm
Revolution per minute
RTT
Rett syndrome
SDS
Sodium dodecyl sulfate
Sgk1
Serum glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1
SSCP
Single strand conformation polymorphism
STI1
Stress-induced
phosphoprotein
STK9
Serine/threonine kinase 9
T3
Triiodothyronine
TBE
Tris-base- boric Acid- Edta
TC-NER
Transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair
TE
Tris-Edta
TEMED
N,N,N',N'-Tetramethylethylenediamine
TFC
Follicular cells
TFIIH
Transcription factor IIH
TG
Thyroglobulin
TPO
Thyroid peroxidase
TRD
Transcription repression domain
TSHR
TSH receptor
TTF
Thyroid transcription factors
UBA
Ubiquitin-associated
UBE3A
Ubiquitin ligase E3A
UBL
Ubiquitin-like
UV
Ultraviolet
XCI
X-chromosome inactivation
XPC
Xeroderma pigmentosum group C
YB1
Y box-binding protein 1
1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Epigenetics
1.1.1. Epigenetics
Epigenetics refers to stable and heritable changes in gene expression that are not
directly attributable to DNA sequence alterations. These changes may affect the expression
of a gene or the properties of its product. Epigenetic mechanisms provide an “extra” level
of transcriptional control and include DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin
configuration changes, imprinting, and RNA-associated silencing (Rodenhiser and Mann,
2006). The human genome contains approximately 23 000 genes that should be expressed
in specific cell types at precise times and this is known to be achieved via two pathways.
The first pathway is the immediate control by transcriptional activators and repressors that
have various nuclear concentrations, covalent modifiers, and subunit associations. It is the
traditional model of genetics in which the regulation of transcription and messenger RNA
(mRNA) stability are directly influenced by the genomic DNA sequence and any sequence
changes present. The second pathway is the epigenetic regulation by altering chromatin
structure through covalent modification of DNA and histones. The epigenetic pattern can
be transmitted from parent cell to daughter cell maintaining a specific epigenotype within
cell lineages. Thus, the phenotype is a result of the genotype, the specific DNA sequence,
and the epigenotype.
1.1.2. DNA Packaging
DNA is wrapped around clusters of globular histone proteins to form nucleosomes.
Nucleosomes consist of short segments of a 146-bp DNA wrapped tightly around a set of
conserved basic proteins known as histones (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) (Margueron et al.,
2005). Each nucleosome consists of histone octamers (2 of each protein), and these basic
histone proteins allow interaction with acidic DNA. These repeating nucleosomes of DNA
and histones are organized into chromatin (Figure 1.1). The structure of chromatin is not
static, and influences the gene expression. Transcriptionally inactive DNA is characterized
by a highly condensed conformation and is associated with regions of the genome that
2
undergo late replication during S phase of the cell cycle. Transcriptionally active DNA has
a more open conformation, is replicated early in S phase, and has relative weak binding by
histone molecules (Figure 1.1). These dynamic chromatin structures are controlled by
reversible epigenetic patterns of DNA methylation and histone modifications (Feinberg et
al
., 2004). Enzymes involved in this process include DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs),
histone
acetyltransferases
(HATs),
histone
deacetylases
(HDACs),
histone
methyltransferases, and the methyl-binding domain proteins (Rodenhiser and Mann, 2006;
Strachan et al., 2003).
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.1. Schematics of epigenetic modifications (a) and reversible changes in
chromatin organization (b) that influence the gene expression (Rodenhiser and Mann,
2006).
3
1.1.3. Epigenetic Modifications
1.1.3.1. CpG and non-CpG Methylation. DNA methylation refers to the covalent addition
of a methyl group derived from S-adenosyl-L-methionine to the fifth carbon of the
cytosine ring to form the 5- methyl cytosine (5meC) (Ehrlich et al., 1981). Across
eukaryotic species, methylation occurs predominantly in cytosines located 5′ of guanines,
known as CpG dinucleotides. In the mammalian genome, the distribution of CpG
dinucleotides is nonrandom (Antequera and Bird, 1993). They are greatly under-
represented in the genome because of evolutionary loss of 5meCs through deamination to
thymine. However, clusters of CpGs known as CpG islands are preserved in 1–2 per cent
of the genome. Briefly, CpG islands are defined as the region of DNA ranging from 200 bp
to 5 kb in size and with greater than 55 per cent GC content. More than 40 per cent of
mammalian genes have CpG islands (Bird et al., 2002). About 70 per cent of CpG islands
are located in the promoter, the first exon, and the first intron of the genes, suggesting that
they are important for gene regulation. Typically, unmethylated clusters of CpG
dinucleotides are located at the upstream of tissue specific genes and essential
“housekeeping” genes that are required for cell survival and are expressed in most tissues.
These unmethylated CpG islands are targets for proteins that initiate gene transcription.
However, methylated CpGs are associated with silent DNA and cause stable heritable
transcriptional silencing. The establishment and maintenance of DNA methylation patterns
is provided by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) and accessory proteins (Dnmt1,
Dnmt3a, Dnmt 3b, Dnmt2, and Dnmt 3L) (Egger et al., 2004). Two mechanisms have been
proposed to explain the inhibitory effect of CpG methylation on gene expression (Figure
1.2). First, it might inhibit the binding of transcription factors to their recognition sites.
Many factors are known to bind CpG-containing
sequences, and some of these fail to bind
when the CpG is methylated (Bell and Felsenfeld, 2000). The second and more prevalent
mechanism involves proteins with high affinity for methylated CpGs, such as the methyl-
CpG-binding protein MeCP2, the methyl-CpG-binding-domain proteins MBD1, MBD2
and MBD4, and Kaiso. These proteins induce the recruitment of protein complexes (co-
repressor Sin3a and HDACs) that are involved in histone modification and chromatin
remodeling.
4
Figure 1.2. DNA methylation can silence genes by either direct (a) or indirect mechanisms
(b) (SZYF, 2006).
Cytosine methylation of non-CpG (CpA, CpC and CpT) dinucleotides are commonly
observed in embryonic stem cells and plants (Ramsahoye et al., 2000). Grandjean et al.
(2007) has reported that Cre-LoxP recombination as well as other non homologous
recombination types (Rassoulzadegan et al., 2002) are strongly inhibited in non-CpG
methylated regions. It is also consistent with previous observations that showed in vivo
involvement of extensively non-CpG methylated oligo C sequences in inactivation of
transposons and integrated viral genomes (Dodge et al., 2002; Brooks et al., 2004).
The exact mechanism(s) responsible for de novo CpG and non-CpG methylation
process is only partly known. Most of the currently available information concerns
methylation in the symmetrical CpG dinucleotides. Much less is known of the somatic and
germ line maintenance of the non CpG methylation pattern observed in animal and plant
cells (Finnegan et al., 2000; Chan et al., 2005). Recent data indicate that the proteins
Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b may be responsible for de novo methylation whereas Dnmt1 maintain
established patterns of methylation (Okano et al., 1999; Oka et al., 2005). De novo
methylation of both CpG and non-CpG sites is believed to occur during embryogenesis by
post implantation expression of DNMT3s (Dnmt3b or 3l) (Grandjean et al., 2007). After
5
the repression of DNMT3 expression, Dnmt1 maintains the methylation of CpGs but not
on other methylated C residues, resulting in the loss of non-CpG methylation (Ramsahoye
et al
., 2000). In tumor cells, de novo CpG and non-CpG methylation is observed and most
likely the results of reactivation of DNMT3 expression (Oka et al., 2005; Kouidou et al.,
2005).
1.1.3.2. Histone Modification. In addition to DNA methylation, changes to histone
proteins affect the DNA structure and gene expression (Peterson et al., 2004). These
modifications, including acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and
poly–adenosine diphosphate ribosylation, ensure that DNA is accessible for transcription
or targeted for silencing. Among them, acetylation and methylation of lysine residues in
the amino termini of histones H3 and H4 are highly correlated with transcriptional
activities. HATs add acetyl groups to lysine residues close to the N terminus of histone
proteins, neutralizing the positive charge. The acetylated N termini then form tails that
protrude from the nucleosome core. Because the acetylated histones are thought to have a
reduced affinity for DNA and possibly for each other, the chromatin may be able to adopt a
more open structure, make DNA more accessible to the transcriptional machinery, and
facilitate localized transcription. HDACs promote repression of gene expression,
presumably because the chromatin can become more condensed upon deacetylation.
Changes in chromatin structure mediated by equilibrium between HAT and HDACs affect
regulation of transcription (Strachan et al., 2003; Ausio et al., 2003) Histone methylation
can be a marker for both active and inactive regions of chromatin. Methylation of lysine 9
on the N terminus of histone H3 is a hallmark of silent DNA and is globally distributed
throughout heterochromatic regions such as centromeres, telomeres and silenced
promoters. In contrast, methylation of lysine 4 of histone H3 denotes activity and is found
predominantly at promoters of active genes. Combinations of acetylation, methylation, and
other posttranslational processing events lead to enormous variation of histone
modifications (Egger et al., 2004).
Epigenetic mechanisms are involved in control of gene expression, including tissue-
specific expression, imprinting, silencing of repetitive elements, correct organization of
chromatin and X-chromosome inactivation. Perturbations in the patterns of DNA
methylation and histone modifications can lead to congenital disorders, multisystem
6
pediatric syndromes, neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g. Rett Syndrome) or predispose
people to acquired disease such as sporadic cancers and neurodegenerative disorders.
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