International Journal of Martial Arts
mental, r = .33, p = .015, and physical health, and r = .32, p = .02. A positive correlation was
observed between age and ratings of overall mental health, r = .43, p = .001, and controlling
for PI presence did not alter this finding, r = .44, p < .001. Age was not associated with any
other test variables.
Using Wilk’s lambda, a MANOVA revealed that there
were no significant gender
differences among the Taekwondo practitioners on any of the test variables, Λ = .98, F(6, 47)
= .13, p =.991, ηp2 = .02. Specifically, there was no effect
of gender on self-esteem, body
image, overall physical and mental health ratings, or on perceived influence of Taekwondo on
physical and mental health. Thus, gender was excluded from further analyses. Due to the small
number of participants in the different ethnic subgroups in the sample, it was not feasible to
determine whether participants’ ethnicity affected any of the test variables.3
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