Middle English Literature

Last Times) in 1256, a work that questioned the fraternal orders’ very right
to exist as true apostolic functionaries and that was sharply critical of frater-
nal hypocrisy, in particular the desire for material gain despite claims to
poverty. Petrarch, Boccaccio, Jean de Meun, William Langland, Geoffrey
Chaucer, and John Gower all satirize the friars, a practice which came to
have additional significance in England because of Lollardy, new develop-
ments in the debates among clergy members, and Richard Fitzralph.
Richard FitzRalph (ca. 1300–60), archbishop of Armagh and primate
of Ireland, was, until the 1350s and 1360s, best known in his role as a
refuter of Armenian heresies for the pope in Avignon and as a preacher
and theologian in England. Either coming upon or partially instigating an
anti-mendicant controversy in London and elsewhere in 1356–7, FitzRalph
proceeded to preach a number of anti-fraternal sermons in the vernacular,
which led the four orders to respond, in turn requiring the archbishop to
defend his position in front of the papal court. On November 8, 1357, he
preached before Innocent VI what became known as Defensio curatorum,
which outlined his objections to the friars, a text that survives in over
seventy manuscripts.
John Trevisa (ca. 1342–1402), having attended Oxford, became a priest
and vicar for Thomas, fourth Lord Berkeley, for whom he completed six
translations of Latin texts, including Ranulf Higden’s Polychronicon (see
“The English and England,” p. 50 and “The English Language,” p. 259),
Batholomeus Anglicus’ De proprietatibus rerum (see “Humors,” p. 13),
and two original works in English on translation. The date of his translation
of the Defense of the Curates is unknown. The translation survives in six
manuscripts.

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Primary documents and further reading
Erickson, C. (1975) “The Fourteenth-Century Franciscans and their Critics I.”
Franciscan Studies 35: 107–35.
—— (1976) “The Fourteenth-Century Franciscans and their Critics II.” Franciscan
Studies 36: 108–47.
FitzRalph, R. (1960) [1614] Defensio curatorum. Monarchia s. romani imperii, vol. 2,
ed. M. Goldast. Graz: Akademische-Druck. U. Verlagsanstalt, 1391–1410.
Hagen, K. T. (1996) “A Frere Ther Was, A Wantowne and a Meryee.” In L. C.
Lambdin and R. T. Lambdin (eds.) Chaucer’s Pilgrims: An Historical Guide to the
Pilgrims in The Canterbury Tales. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 80–92.
Knowles, D. (1948–59) The Religious Orders in England, 3 vols. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press.
Mann, J. (1973) Chaucer and Medieval Estates Satire. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
Miller, R. P. (ed.) (1977) Chaucer: Sources and Backgrounds. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Scase, W. (1989) Piers Plowman and the New Anticlericalism. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Szittya, P. R. (1986) The Antifraternal Tradition in Medieval Literature. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
Walsh, K. (1981) A Fourteenth-century Scholar and Primate: Richard FitzRalph in
Oxford, Avignon, and Armagh. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Richard FitzRalph. British Library MS Harley 1900, fols. 7r–15v. “Defensio curatorum.” Dialogus
inter militem et clericum, trans. John Trevisa, ed. A. J. Perry. EETS, o.s. 167. London: Oxford
University Press, 1925, 43–73 (selections).
Language: English (Southwestern)
Manuscript date: ca. 1400
Y seide, and efte y seye, if me axeth what persoon is most worthi to be
chose for singuler
1
of parischons,
2
a frere or the ordynarie, y say that the
ordynarie is more worthi to be chose for schrifte than eny frere. For he is
more profitable, and schrifte that is schewide singulerliche to hym voydeth
mo desavauntes
3
and damages. First y saye that the ordinarie is the more
siker
4
persone, for . . . he is y-fonge
5
a persoon of God and of holy chirche
1
personal well-being.
2
parishioners.
3
more disadvantages.
4
reliable.
5
accepted as.
Friars
9

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10
Conventions and Institutions
and of the comyn lawe, and the frere is forbode by the lawe. Thanne the
ordynarie is the more siker persone. Also, the ordinarie is more y-bounde
to his parischons than is a frere. Thanne the parischon may verreilich and
more sikerliche triste that the ordynarie wole more bisiliche ordeyne for his
savacioun than wole eny frere that is a straunge persoone, as a bodiliche
leche
6
that is prevy and y-knowe is more y-holde to the seke man than a
straunge leche. Also, by the comyn cours, the parischon douteth nought
nother schal doute of his ordinarie, wether his power to assoile his sugetis
7
be y-bounde other no, but of freres he may have verreiliche suspecioun and
trowe that her power is y-bounde for diverse cursyngis, and with oute eny
doute hit is more siker to be schryve to hym that hath fre power than to
hym that his power is y-bounde. Thanne the ordinarie is the more siker
persone and the more certeyn. And that me may trowe that freres beth
acursed, hit is preved, first by the decretal in Clementinis de decimis. There
it is seide that “Alle men of religioun that haveth no benefice beth a-cursed
if thei withholdeth, other withdraweth, other fondeth to appropre to hem
without a laweful cause, by any maner, colour, other sleighthe,
8
rightes
other tethinges that beth dewe to holy chirche.”
9
And it semeth no dowte,
by Goddes owne lawe, that tethinges of byqueestes and of fre giftes is
detty
10
and dewe to parische chirches and to curatours therof. And so seyn
the doctors Innocencius and Hostiensis.
11
Thanne alle freres that bynymeth
12
parische chirches the tethinge of that is y-geve hem other biquethe, beth
acursed. For thei payeth nevere tethinge of siche byquystes and giftes, as it
is comynliche seide . . .
Also, that the ordynarie is more siker to the paryschon, hit is preved other
wise in this maner: for the parischon may skilfulliche deme that his ordynarie
is a juge lasse suspect and more skilful
13
for to enjoye
14
hym skilful penaunce
and profitable for his synnes. For he schal nought suppose nother have
suspecioun that his ordynarie hereth his schrifte for covetise of getyng and
of wynnyng of bodilich help and socour, for the ordynaries liflode
15
longeth
6
doctor.
7
subjects.
8
sleight.
9
Clement V (d. 1314), Clementines.
10
owing.
11
Innocent IV (ca. 1190–1254), Henry of Suso (d. 1270).
12
deprive.
13
reasonable.
14
enjoin.
15
livelihood.

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to his offys by lawe of God and of holy chirche. Of freres thei may suppose
and wene that thei doth hit for to have socour and help of her liflode, for in
here appele that thei made agenes me in Engelond hit is conteyned that by
her fundacioun thei beth y-bounde to beggerie and to the heighest poverte,
nought with-stondyng that thei tellith that thei haveth powere to here the
schriftes of alle men that wole be schryve to hem. Therfore, the parischen
may skilfulliche suppose and have suspecioun that, bycause of getyng somme
releve of her beggerie, thei beth so busy to here schriftes. Thanne may the
parischon skilfulliche argue in his herte why wolde this begger sitte and here
my schrifte and leve his beggyng and getyng of his liflode but he hope to
have of me siche maner help, and nede driveth to synne, by the which synne
the nede myght be releved, as Proverbs 30,
16
Salomon, seith and prayeth:
“Geve me nother beggerie nother riches, but geve me onliche what is
nedeful to my liflode lest y be excited to denye and saye who is oure Lorde,
and conpelled by nede for to stele and forswere the name of my God.”
Thanne hit folewith that for all maner synnes, he wole joyne me almes dede
for to releve his owne beggerie, and so y schal nought be cleneliche by-quyt
of my synnes. Therfore, whanne hise disciples axide of oure Lord, “Why
myght we nought cast hym out?” and spake of a fende, oure Lord answerde
and seide: “These manere fendes beth nought cast out but with bedes and
fastyng,” Matthew 16.
17
Of this worde hit is y-take that as for evereche
diverse sekenesse of body diverse medicyns helpith, so for evereche gostlich
seknese most be ordeyned his propre medicyn. And this begger that is bisy
about his beggerye wole nought with-out suspecioun ordeyne me siche
medicyns for my synnes . . .
Curatours haveth another grete damage by cause of mysuse of privy-
leges: that freres haveth touchyng
18
the thre quarters of alle profites that
fallith to hem, other wise of biquyst other of gifte, distinctliche other
indistinctliche,
19
and al maner mysuse that thei useth of that is conteyned in
the chapitre dudum,
20
and touchyng the ferthe part that is i-graunted to
curatours and y-taxed there, the whiche ferthe part of many biquystes,
offryngis, and giftes freres payeth nought to curatours, but freres appropreth
hit to hem-silf with many cautels and wyles as curatours tellith so that
bitwene hem and freres as it were in evereche place among Cristen men is
16
Proverbs 30.8–9.
17
Matthew 17.18–20.
18
handling of.
19
individually or indiscriminately.
20
before.
Friars
11

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12
Conventions and Institutions
ple
21
and strif withoute ende. So that in many placis charite is fer, and after
wordes cometh strokes . . .
Thanne hit folewith that these of the ordres of beggers multeplieth hem
in this maner agenus the ordenaunce of God almyghtyes witt and his
wisdom, and bynymeth therby the fleece of the peple and of the clergie, and
chargith hem in everech place. For now unnethe may any grete men other
smaal, lewed or lered, take a morsel of mete but siche beggers come unbede
and begge nought as pore men schuld atte gate other atte dore, axing almes
mekelich as Fraunces taught and hoteth
22
in his testament,
23
but thei cometh
into houses and courtes, and beth y-harberwide,
24
and etith and drynketh
what thei ther fyndeth unbede and unprayed. And notheles thei bereth with
hem corn,
25
other mele, brede, flesche, other chese; though there be but
tweyne in the hous, thei bereth with hem that oon. And no man may hem
werne but thei put of
26
al kyndeliche schame. And it is wonder that thei
dredith nought the sentence of Pope Gregorye that writeth in a comyn
privelege to prelates of holy chirche in this maner: “For ofte vices of privy
riches entreth, and Sathanas his angel degiseth
27
hym in the liknesse of an
angel of light. By this present auctorite, we comaundeth and hoteth that if
eny that tellith that thei beth of the ordre of frere prechours precheth in
yowre contrayes and turneth hem to begging of money wharby the ordre of
hem that haveth made professioun to povert myght be diffamed, take ye
hem as fals faytours
28
and dampneth hem.”
29
Thei beth now so sotyl in this
crafte of beggerie that pore vikers and persons and al the peple pleyneth
therof, neigh in everech place. This semeth a wonder maner lyvyng in hem
that seyn, that thei mot holde the gospel by her professioun and doth
agenus Cristes owne sentence that sente his disciples to prech the gospel
and seide: “Passe ye nought from hous to hous,” Luke 10.
30
Also thei doth
agenus another scripture that seith: “Voide and war that thou be noght
herberwed from hous to hous,” Ecclesiasticus 29.
31
Bot thei goth so about
21
contention.
22
commands.
23
Rule 1.9.
24
lodged.
25
grain.
26
off.
27
disguises.
28
beggars.
29
Gregory I the Great (ca. 540–604), Liber regula pastoralis.
30
Luke 10.7.
31
Ecclesiasticus 29.30.

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from court to court and from hous to hous, for her cloystre schulde nought
be her prison. Ys nought this grete damage to the clergie and to the peple
also? Sothlich hit semeth so to many men, and al hit hath occasioun of the
mysuse of pryvyleges, for thei tellith that thei useth so the privyleges of
prechyng and of heryng of schriftes, neigh everech man schameth to werne
hem other to put hem of.
And also these privyleges and other thingis that schal be touched withynne
doth freres many damages. For hit semeth that these privyleges infecteth
hem with many maner synnes: with the synne of injurie and of wrong, with
the synne of unbuxomnesse,
32
with the synne of covetise, and with the
synne of pride . . .
Also, Seynt Fraunceys in his rule hoteth in this maner: “Ich hote heighlich
alle freres that thei have noon suspect company as counseil of wymmen;
also, that thei come nought in abbayes of monchons
33
out-take
34
thilke
freres that have special leve of the court of Rome; also, that thei be nought
gossippes to men nother to wymmen leste sclaundre arise by occasioun
therof among freres.”
35
And freres procureth the contrarie for to here the
privyeste counseile of wymmen, of queenes, and of alle othere, and leggeth
36
hed to hed. With grete obedience thei folewith Seynt Job that seide: “Ich
have made covenaunt with myn eighen that y wolde thenke of a mayde.”
37
And so now by sich company thei disputeth with ladyes in chambre; therfore,
in al the worlde wide sclaunder springeth of freres, the wiche sclaundre y
wole nought reherse at this tyme. Of many hit semeth openlich that thei
infecteth hem-silf with the synne of unobediens and unbuxumnesse by the
mys-use of siche privyleges and of her owne reule by occasioun of siche
privyleges.
Humors
Humoral theory in England in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries be-
longed both to the world of the practitioner and the academic. It originated
in Aristotle’s idea of balance within the body and achieved its fullest
articulation in the works of Galen (129–ca. 216), which became central
32
disobedience.
33
nuns.
34
except.
35
Rule 1.12.
36
lie.
37
Job 31.1.
Humors
13

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14
Conventions and Institutions
to the curriculum of medical study in Europe. The enormous quantity of
medical manuscripts in England (over 7,000 in English alone from the mid-
fourteenth to fifteenth centuries) testifies to the thorough extent to which
medical discourses permeated society.
Bartholomeus Anglicus wrote his De proprietatibus rerum in the mid-
thirteenth century. Bartholomeus was probably born an Englishman,
studied in Paris, became a Minorite in France, and went on to lecture on
theology in Paris. His text is encyclopedic, not a strictly medical work, and
contains information about spiritual and human matters, including all the
branches of human knowledge. John Trevisa completed his translation of