study. J Orthop Trauma 2013; 27(1): 43
–8.
MILITARY MEDICINE, Vol. 181, November/December Supplement 2016
29
Improving Outcomes Following Extremity Trauma
MILITARY MEDICINE, 181, 11/12:30, 2016
The Prevalence of Gait Deviations in Individuals
With Transtibial Amputation
Christopher A. Rábago, PT, PhD*†; Jason M. Wilken, PT, PhD*†
ABSTRACT Individuals with a transtibial amputation (TTA) are at increased risk for developing secondary musculo-
skeletal disorders as a result of multiple gait deviations. These deviations are primarily characterized using group mean
comparisons, which do not establish if deviations are prevalent, of large magnitude, or both. In contrast, use of norma-
tive reference ranges and prevalence speci
fically identifies the percentage of individuals outside of a predefined accept-
able range. The purpose of this study was to identify and characterize gait deviations in service members with
unilateral TTA using group mean comparisons and normative reference ranges (able-bodied mean ± 2 SD). Temporal
spatial, kinematic, and kinetic data were collected during biomechanical gait assessments of 40 able-bodied males and
16 males with a TTA. Highly prevalent and statistically signi
ficant deviations were observed at the ankle and knee of the
prosthetic limb and hip of the intact limb in the TTA group. Approximately 20% of measures that were signi
ficantly
different between groups demonstrated 0% deviation prevalence. Deviations in the prosthetic limb were in agreement
with literature, although most intact limb deviations were not. Further study is needed to determine the exact etiology
of these deviations, and their association with the development of secondary musculoskeletal conditions.
INTRODUCTION
Individuals with lower extremity amputations are at increased
risk for developing secondary musculoskeletal disorders as a
result of persistent gait deviations associated with prosthetic
use.
1
Compared to age-matched peers without amputation,
World War II veterans with transtibial amputation (TTA)
showed an increased incidence of knee and hip osteoarthritis
later in life (mean age = 71.8 years); 30 to 35 years after their
amputation.
2,3
Individuals with a unilateral TTA were also
88% more likely to develop osteoporosis in the amputated
limb compared to the general population.
4
In addition, 60% of
individuals with a TTA reported the onset of back pain within
2 years of amputation and 63% categorized pain as moderate
to severe.
5
Gait deviations and compensations such as asym-
metric single limb stance time
1,6
and increased vertical ground
reaction forces at the intact limb
3,7
–9
are thought to exacerbate
these musculoskeletal degenerative processes. Early identi
fica-
tion of gait deviations and formal training of gait mechanics,
especially in young individuals with a TTA, could help pre-
vent a lifetime of poor gait mechanics and reduce the risk of
developing secondary musculoskeletal conditions.
Few studies have systematically determined the effect of
a TTA on temporal spatial, kinematic, and kinetic measures
on a per person basis. Gait deviations are often characterized
using group mean comparisons of individuals with a TTA
to able-bodied (AB) participants.
10
–17
However, individuals
with a TTA in these studies often vary considerably in age
(20
–77 years) and prosthetic experience (1–59 years),
11,12,15,16
which may reduce statistical power because of increased inter-
subject variability.
18
A reduction in statistical power lessens
the probability that signi
ficant differences (i.e., deviations) will
be detected. Further, many of these studies have fewer than
10 participants,
10,13
–17,19
which limits rigorous statistical anal-
ysis.
19
To achieve statistical signi
ficance using group mean
comparisons, a high proportion of values from the TTA group
must be consistently greater or less than the AB group mean;
or a few individuals with a TTA must have suf
ficiently large
deviations to bias their group mean. As a result, the reader
is often unable to determine if a given deviation is prevalent,
of large magnitude, or both.
An alternate approach for identifying gait deviations in
individuals with a TTA is to compare their data against nor-
mative reference ranges (NRR), which are calculated using
mean and variability data from an AB group.
20
A value from
an individual with a TTA that falls outside the NRR is con-
sidered a deviation in that speci
fic measure. Prevalence of
deviations in each measure can then be determined as the per-
centage of a population that functions outside the established
NRR.
20
–23
Deviations identi
fied using a NRR approach are
indicative of abnormal mechanics in each individual, which
may be missed when comparing the mean performance of a
patient population to mean performance of an AB group.
Further, prevalence provides an easy-to-understand metric,
which indicates the frequency of deviations, not described
using traditional group mean comparisons.
The prevalence of gait deviations, as identi
fied using a
NRR approach, has yet to be determined for a group of indi-
viduals with TTA. The combination of both group mean
comparisons and prevalence data could be used to identify
gait deviations most likely encountered when treating indi-
viduals with a TTA. Therefore, the purpose of this study
*Center for the Intrepid, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Brooke
Army Medical Center, 3551 Roger Brooke Drive, Joint Base San Antonio,
Fort Sam Houston, TX 78234.
†Extremity Trauma and Amputation Center of Excellence, 2748 Worth
Road, Suite 29, Joint Base San Antonio, Fort Sam Houston, TX 78234.
The view(s) expressed herein are those of the authors and do not re
flect
the of
ficial policy or position of Brooke Army Medical Center, the U.S. Army
Medical Department, the U.S. Army Of
fice of the Surgeon General, the
Department of the Army and Department of Defense, or the U.S. Government.
doi: 10.7205/MILMED-D-15-00505
MILITARY MEDICINE, Vol. 181, November/December Supplement 2016
30
was to determine the presence of gait deviations and their
prevalence in a group of service members with a TTA.
METHODS
Subjects
Data from 40 AB males and 16 male individuals with a TTA
are presented in this study. The AB group included service
members between the ages of 18 and 45 years with no pain
at time of data collection and no history of lower extremity
injury requiring surgery. The TTA group included service
members between the ages of 18 and 45 years who used an
energy-storing-and-returning ankle-foot prosthesis, were able
to ambulate without an assistive device, and had been ambu-
lating for approximately 4 months. In order to detect devia-
tions not associated with acute pain, the TTA group could
not have pain of greater than 4 out of 10 anywhere on their
body at the time of data collection. The TTA group was a
convenience sample of patients within a military treatment
facility who met the inclusion criteria without bias toward
their mechanism of injury or level of physical
fitness. All
participants provided written informed consent before partic-
ipating in this institutional review board
–approved study.
Procedures
Participants underwent a biomechanical gait assessment on
level ground at a prede
fined walking speed scaled to leg
length using a Froude number
24
of 0.16. A full-body, six-
degree-of-freedom marker set comprised of 57 retrore
flective
markers was placed on 13 body segments.
25
A 26 camera
motion capture system (Motion Analysis Corp., Santa Rosa,
California) recorded marker trajectories as participants walked
across a 10-m walkway embedded with eight AMTI force
plates (AMTI, Inc., Watertown, Massachusetts) operating at
1,200 Hz. Temporal spatial, kinematic, and kinetic data were
normalized to 100% step cycle using Visual 3D (C-Motion
Inc., Rockville, Maryland). Five representative strides from
each participant were exported into MATLAB (Mathworks,
Natick, Massachusetts). Key kinematic and kinetic measures
for the ankle, knee, hip, pelvis, and trunk were de
fined as pre-
viously described.
25
Joint range of motion (ROM) was de
fined
as the difference between the maximum and minimum joint
angle values during one gait cycle. On the prosthetic side,
ankle sagittal ROM was de
fined as the difference between the
maximum and minimum joint angle values during stance.
Temporal spatial measures were determined using kinetic
gait events and foot kinematics. Step length was de
fined as
the distance between the foot centers in the anterior-posterior
direction at heel strike. Step width was calculated as the
medial-lateral distance between the heel markers on each
foot during double-limb stance. Step time was quanti
fied as
the duration between heel strike of the ipsilateral limb and
heel strike of the contralateral limb. Stance time was deter-
mined as the duration between heel strike and toe off of
the same limb. Swing time was quanti
fied as the duration
between toe off and heel strike of the same limb. Stride
length was de
fined as the distance between the foot centers
in the anterior-posterior direction on successive heel strikes
of the same limb. Stride time was quanti
fied as the duration
between successive heel strikes of the same limb.
Statistical Analysis
SPSS v.19 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Illinois) was used for all
statistical analyses. AB and TTA group means and standard
deviations were calculated for demographic, anthropometric,
temporal spatial, kinematic, and kinetic measures. Due to
differences in sample size, and a desire to retain all avail-
able data, Mann
–Whitney non parametric tests were used
to identify differences between AB and TTA groups for
demographic-anthropometric, temporal spatial, and kinematic-
kinetic measures. The AB group
’s right lower limb was
used in comparisons made to the TTA group
’s lower limbs
(e.g., AB vs. prosthetic limb and AB vs. intact limb).
Bonferroni
–Holm corrections were performed to correct for
multiple comparisons across all measures. The Bonferroni
–
Holm method uses a step-down approach to account for
multiple comparisons by arranging
p values from the smallest
to the largest and comparing them to sequential signi
ficance
cutoffs.
26
Signi
ficance was set at a p value of 0.05. Thus,
correction factors accounting for 6, 6, and 53 comparisons
yielded minimum
p-value cutoffs of 0.0083, 0.0083, and
0.0009 for demographic-anthropometric, temporal spatial, and
kinematic-kinetic measures, respectively.
Similar to the work of O
’Sullivan,
20
the NRR for each
measure was de
fined as two standard deviations greater than
and less than the AB group mean. Microsoft Excel 2007
(Microsoft Corp., Redmond, Washington) was used to deter-
mine the upper and lower bounds of the NRR for the AB
group and the prevalence of deviations in the TTA group.
The deviation prevalence for each measure was calculated as
the percentage of participants from the TTA group with indi-
vidual mean values outside the NRR. To facilitate visualiza-
tion of the data and ease of presentation, prevalence values
were categorized into three groups; high (>50%), moderate
(25
–49%), and low (<25%).
RESULTS
Participant demographics and anthropometrics including
age, height, weight, body mass index, leg length, walking
speed, and time since independent ambulation ( TTA group
only) are listed in Table I. Only age demonstrated a signi
fi-
cant difference between groups with the TTA group being
an average of 4 years older than the AB group (
p = 0.006).
Figure 1A provides an example of a measure that demon-
strates high deviation prevalence in the TTA group with sig-
ni
ficant between group difference; 5.4% of all measures
presented here were in this category. In addition, 7.1% of
measures showed moderate deviation prevalence in the TTA
group with signi
ficant between group differences (Fig. 1B)
MILITARY MEDICINE, Vol. 181, November/December Supplement 2016
31
The Prevalence of Gait Deviations in Individuals With Transtibial Amputation
and 12.5% showed moderate deviation prevalence in the
TTA group without signi
ficant between group differences
(Fig. 1C). Lastly, 17.9% of measures had low deviation
prevalence in the TTA group with signi
ficant between group
differences (Fig. 1D) and 57.1% had low deviation preva-
lence in the TTA group without signi
ficant between group
differences (Fig. 1E). Kinematic, kinetic, and temporal spa-
tial measurement means and SDs for the AB and TTA
groups are shown in Table II. The direction of signi
ficant
differences between the AB and TTA groups and prevalence
of deviations in the TTA group is detailed in Table III.
Temporal Spatial
In the TTA group, swing time was signi
ficantly decreased in
the intact limb and moderately prevalent. Intact limb step
time and step length measures had the greatest prevalence of
deviations among temporal spatial measures (37.5
–43.8%
respectively), but were not signi
ficantly different from the
AB group. In addition, 7 of the 16 individuals demonstrated
deviations of both step length and step time in the prosthetic
or intact limb. However, step length and step time did not
systematically increase or decrease relative to the AB group.
Ankle
Prosthetic ankle plantar
flexion during initial swing, sagittal
ROM, and power generation at terminal stance were signi
fi-
cantly decreased (
p ≤ 0.001) in the TTA group compared to
the AB group with 100, 81.3, and 50% prevalence, respec-
tively. With the exception of initial contact power absorption
(43.8% deviation prevalence,
p ≤ 0.001), all intact ankle
measures had less than 13% deviation prevalence in the
TTA group. Bilateral dorsi
flexion moments were signifi-
cantly different (
p ≤ 0.001) than the AB group, but only
with a 12.5% prevalent in the TTA group.
Knee
Midstance power generation at the intact knee of the pros-
thetic limb was signi
ficantly decreased ( p ≤ 0.001) with a
high prevalence of deviations in the TTA group. Deviations
of knee kinematic measures at the prosthetic limb ranged in
TABLE I.
Demographic and Anthropometric Measures for AB and TTA Groups
Mean (SD)
Age (years)
Height (m)
Weight (kg)
BMI (kg/m
2
)
Leg Length (cm)
Walking Speed (m/s)
Ambulation (weeks)
AB
24.1 (6.5)*
1.7 (0.1)
77.2 (10.8)
25.4 (3.1)
91.8 (5.9)
1.20 (0.04)
N/A
TTA
28.5 (5.4)*
1.8 (0.1)
86.6 (12.4)
27.4 (3.0)
93.3 (6.1)
1.21 (0.04)
16.6 (3.3)
BMI, body mass index; Ambulation, time since independent ambulation. *Signi
ficant between group difference after Bonferroni–Holm correction with
smallest
p-value cutoff of 0.0083.
FIGURE 1.
Graphical representation of the NRR for selected measures using the AB group mean value
♦
and 2 SD bars. The value for each individual
@ in the TTA group is plotted against the NRR for that measure. Five combinations of deviation prevalence level in the TTA group and signi
ficant group
mean differences (*) corresponding to values in Tables II and III are shown: (A)
“High” prevalence (>50%) with a significant group mean difference,
(B) Moderate prevalence (25
–49%) with a significant group mean difference, (C) Moderate prevalence without a significant group mean difference,
(D) Low prevalence (<25%) with a signi
ficant group mean difference, and (E) Low prevalence without a significant group mean difference
MILITARY MEDICINE, Vol. 181, November/December Supplement 2016
32
The Prevalence of Gait Deviations in Individuals With Transtibial Amputation
prevalence from 18.8 to 31.3% and were not signi
ficantly
different from the AB group; with the exception of sagittal
ROM (68.8% deviation prevalence,
p ≤ 0.001). Each of the
knee kinematic measures in the prosthetic limb, except ini-
tial contact
flexion, had values that were both greater and
less than the NRR, resulting in statistically similar means
between groups. Six of 14 knee kinetic measures in the
intact and prosthetic limbs were signi
ficantly different from
TABLE II.
Peak Joint Angles, Moments, and Powers for the Lower Extremities and Trunk. Sagittal ROM and Temporal Spatial Measures
are also presented. Values are Shown for the Right Limb of the AB Group and the Prosthetic and Intact Limbs of the TTA Group.
Signi
ficant Group Differences between the Prosthetic and Intact Limbs and the Right Limb of the AB Group are Highlighted in Bold.
For Each Peak Measure, the Timing of the Peak in the Gait Cycle is identi
fied
Mean (SD)
AB
Prosthetic
Intact
Mean (SD)
AB
Prosthetic
Intact
Ankle Angle (°)
Ankle Moment (Nm/kg)
Plantar
flexion: LR
5.3 (3.0)
2.1 (3.6)
3.3 (2.7)
Dorsiflexion: LR
0.23 (0.07)
0.31 (0.08)
0.28 (0.07)
Dorsi
flexion: TSt
14.1 (3.8)
16.3 (2.9)
14.1 (3.3)
Plantarflexion: TSt
1.38 (0.15)
1.28 (0.15)
1.38 (0.13)
Plantar
flexion: ISw
14.9 (5.0)
−4.7 (2.7)
15.8 (6.4)
Ankle Powers (BW/kg
)
Sagittal ROM
29.0 (3.9)
18.4 (3.2)
30.2 (5.0)
Absorption: LR
0.26 (0.11)
0.28 (0.09)
0.43 (0.18)
Absorption: TSt
0.77 (0.26)
0.94 (0.30)
0.87 (0.31)
Generation: TSt
2.38 (0.51)
1.39 (0.34)
2.51 (0.58)
Knee Angle (°)
Knee Moment (Nm/kg)
Flexion: IC
−5.7 (4.1)
−1.0 (6.3)
−5.8 (3.7)
Flexion: LR
0.41 (0.10)
0.30 (0.07)
0.51 (0.07)
Flexion: LR
10.9 (5.1)
7.8 (7.7)
9.2 (4.8)
Extension: MSt
0.46 (0.21)
0.22 (0.18)
0.39 (0.15)
Extension: TSt
0.3 (4.3)
2.5 (6.7)
−1.3 (3.2)
Flexion: TSt
0.34 (0.17)
0.20 (0.14)
0.40 (0.08)
Flexion: MSw
60.4 (4.4)
55.9 (6.7)
55.5 (5.2)
Extension - TSt
0.15 (0.07)
0.15 (0.06)
0.11 (0.03)
Sagittal ROM
68.9 (4.3)
58.0 (8.7)
63.6 (5.5)
Varus: LR
0.08 (0.05)
0.01 (0.04)
0.08 (0.06)
Valgus: LR
0.41 (0.11)
0.32 (0.10)
0.44 (0.14)
Knee Powers (BW/kg)
Generation: MSt
0.95 (0.29)
0.24 (0.12)
1.09 (0.39)
Absorption: LR
0.57 (0.34)
0.15 (0.18)
0.45 (0.26)
Generation: TSt
0.48 (0.23)
0.22 (0.15)
0.50 (0.15)
Absorption: TSt
0.78 (0.32)
0.76 (0.18)
0.52 (0.19)
Hip Angle (°)
Hip Moment (Nm/kg)
Flexion: LR
26.5 (5.5)
26.5 (6.7)
21.5 (6.0)
Extension: LR
0.82 (0.18)
0.64 (0.09)
1.00 (0.14)
Extension: PSw
9.4 (5.2)
13.1 (6.4)
15.0 (6.5)
Flexion: TSt
0.78 (0.20)
0.77 (0.21)
0.60 (0.15)
Flexion: TSw
29.6 (5.5)
27.9 (5.6)
21.8 (6.3)
Extension: Sw
0.30 (0.07)
0.37 (0.11)
0.40 (0.07)
Sagittal ROM
39.1 (3.0)
41.2 (3.8)
37.4 (1.9)
Abductor
0.76 (0.12)
0.74 (0.14)
0.89 (0.17)
Adduction
5.1 (2.4)
3.9 (2.6)
5.6 (2.1)
Adductor
−0.16 (0.06)
−0.08 (0.03)
−0.18 (0.06)
Abduction
8.1 (2.4)
6.0 (3.6)
2.7 (2.9)
Hip Powers (BW/kg)
Generation: MSt
0.44 (0.23)
0.67 (0.13)
0.51 (0.20)
Absorption: TSt
0.57 (0.18)
0.58 (0.23)
0.44 (0.16)
Generation: TSt
0.83 (0.20)
0.85 (0.22)
0.75 (0.16)
Pelvic Angle (°)
Trunk-Pelvic Angle (°)
Anterior Tilt
10.1 (4.4)
5.9 (5.9)
5.9 (5.9)
Sagittal ROM
3.45 (0.85)
4.44 (1.41)
N/A
Posterior Tilt
−7.0 (4.2)
−2.0 (5.9)
−1.8 (6.0)
Frontal ROM
13.57 (3.49)
8.97 (1.90)
N/A
Sagittal ROM
3.1 (0.7)
4.0 (0.9)
4.1 (1.0)
Transverse ROM
13.43 (3.32)
10.60 (2.51)
N/A
Contralateral Drop
3.7 (1.5)
1.0 (1.5)
3.6 (1.6)
Trunk-Lab Angle (°)
Contralateral Elevation
3.7 (2.1)
3.5 (1.6)
1.0 (1.5)
Sagittal ROM
3.52 (0.74)
3.76 (0.57)
N/A
Frontal ROM
7.4 (2.6)
4.5 (1.0)
4.6 (1.1)
Frontal ROM
5.27 (1.61)
6.99 (2.37)
N/A
Hip Forward
5.4 (2.8)
4.8 (2.7)
3.8 (2.8)
Transverse ROM
6.47 (1.98)
7.97 (2.02)
N/A
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