Ministry of Higher and Secondary Special Education of the Republic of Uzbekistan Termiz State Pedagogical Institute, Faculty of Foreign Languages ​​and Literature, English language course, 2nd stage, 22/01 group

2.2. The emergence of ancient writings.
(Mesopotamia) BC Cuneiform hieroglyphic writing was discovered in the 4th millennium. Sumerian writings are pictorial writings, and the idea they want to convey is reflected in the form of pictures. However, many things could not be expressed with pictorial words, and this was simplified, and cuneiform writing was discovered. There were more than 600 cuneiform writings. .This Writing was invented in Sumer 3 thousand years ago. There were libraries in Mesopotamia cities such as Ur, Babylon, Ashur. Mikhat writing spread widely to ancient Asia and then to European countries.
(Mesopotamia) BC Cuneiform hieroglyphic writing was discovered in the 4th millennium. Sumerian writings are pictorial writings, and the idea they want to convey is reflected in the form of pictures. However, many things could not be expressed with pictorial words, and this was simplified, and cuneiform writing was discovered. There were more than 600 cuneiform writings. .This Writing was invented in Sumer 3 thousand years ago. There were libraries in Mesopotamia cities such as Ur, Babylon, Ashur. Mikhat writing spread widely to ancient Asia and then to European countries.
6-7 thousand years ago, pictorial hieroglyphs consisting of 750 characters were discovered. In the Egyptian writing, things and events were expressed with various pictures and signs, and with the passage of time, these signs became alphabetic signs. During the period of the Old Kingdom (2800-2250 BC), an alphabet representing 24 sounds appeared. In 1822, Jacques Francois Champalon was able to read Egyptian and Greek inscriptions of the same content carved on a stone near the city of Rosetta (Rosetta Stone). now kept in the "British" Museum in London). The writing of the Egyptians was written from right to left, while the writing of the Sumerians was written from left to right.

6-7 thousand years ago, pictorial hieroglyphs consisting of 750 characters were discovered. In the Egyptian writing, things and events were expressed with various pictures and signs, and with the passage of time, these signs became alphabetic signs. During the period of the Old Kingdom (2800-2250 BC), an alphabet representing 24 sounds appeared. In 1822, Jacques Francois Champalon was able to read Egyptian and Greek inscriptions of the same content carved on a stone near the city of Rosetta (Rosetta Stone). now kept in the "British" Museum in London). The writing of the Egyptians was written from right to left, while the writing of the Sumerians was written from left to right.

BC In the 3rd - 2nd millennium, there was a writing consisting of about 700 signs and pictures. An alphabet of 700 characters was found in the Hind and Punjab regions, and according to scientists, it was determined that these writings were based on the Sumerian and Egyptian writings. The Hinds were the first to enter the number "0" in the calculation number in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. The Indian script is similar to the Sumerian and Hittite script, which consists of approximately 400 or 250-300 characters and pictures. BC From the 5th century, they used Brahmi, Kharoshtkhi, Aramaic, and Gupta scripts.

BC In the 3rd - 2nd millennium, there was a writing consisting of about 700 signs and pictures. An alphabet of 700 characters was found in the Hind and Punjab regions, and according to scientists, it was determined that these writings were based on the Sumerian and Egyptian writings. The Hinds were the first to enter the number "0" in the calculation number in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. The Indian script is similar to the Sumerian and Hittite script, which consists of approximately 400 or 250-300 characters and pictures. BC From the 5th century, they used Brahmi, Kharoshtkhi, Aramaic, and Gupta scripts.
Discovered 3.5 - 4 thousand years ago, the Chinese hieroglyph was first used in the Shang In period. It was discovered in the 2nd millennium, and there were about 2,000 types of writings. During the Han era, the number of hieroglyphs reached 18 thousand. Until now, it has been kept partially unchanged. At first, the Chinese wrote on boards made of bone, wood, wood, leather, and bamboo, and from the 5th century they wrote on pieces of silk.

Discovered 3.5 - 4 thousand years ago, the Chinese hieroglyph was first used in the Shang In period. It was discovered in the 2nd millennium, and there were about 2,000 types of writings. During the Han era, the number of hieroglyphs reached 18 thousand. Until now, it has been kept partially unchanged. At first, the Chinese wrote on boards made of bone, wood, wood, leather, and bamboo, and from the 5th century they wrote on pieces of silk. BC In the 3rd - 2nd millennia - there was a linear script, "A" and "B" had a linear letter. In 1953, English scientists Ventris and Chadwick were able to read the Cretan Inscriptions with "B" line.

BC In the 3rd - 2nd millennia - there was a linear script, "A" and "B" had a linear letter. In 1953, English scientists Ventris and Chadwick were able to read the Cretan Inscriptions with "B" line.
Etruscan, Osk, Latin inscriptions BC. It was created in the VIII-VII centuries.
In Phenicia, at the end of the 9th century BC, at the beginning of the 8th century (10th century), an inscription consisting of 25 characters was discovered. The text was corrected and reduced to 22 characters. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, an alphabet consisting of 29 characters was discovered in Syria, and an alphabet consisting of 22 letters was discovered in Phoenicia. Based on the Phoenician alphabet, the Aramaic script, the Iranian Achaemenid script, and the Parthian script originated in Western Asia.
In Phenicia, at the end of the 9th century BC, at the beginning of the 8th century (10th century), an inscription consisting of 25 characters was discovered. The text was corrected and reduced to 22 characters. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC, an alphabet consisting of 29 characters was discovered in Syria, and an alphabet consisting of 22 letters was discovered in Phoenicia. Based on the Phoenician alphabet, the Aramaic script, the Iranian Achaemenid script, and the Parthian script originated in Western Asia.⁶
Based on the Aramaic script, BC. It was formed in the III-II centuries. The remains of this writing are from Qal'ai Mug near Panjikent (found in 1932, 74 Sogdian, 2 Chinese, 2 Arabic, 1 Turkish), near the city of Turfon in Eastern Turkestan, in Samarkand It was found in the monument of Afrosiyab.
Based on the Aramaic script, BC. It was formed in the III-II centuries. The remains of this writing are from Qal'ai Mug near Panjikent (found in 1932, 74 Sogdian, 2 Chinese, 2 Arabic, 1 Turkish), near the city of Turfon in Eastern Turkestan, in Samarkand It was found in the monument of Afrosiyab.
It is based on the Aramaic script. Those belonging to the V-IV centuries were found in Oibuyrkala. BC Those belonging to the IV-III centuries were found in the Koykiryan fortress.
It is based on the Aramaic script. Those belonging to the V-IV centuries were found in Oibuyrkala. BC Those belonging to the IV-III centuries were found in the Koykiryan fortress. It was formed on the basis of the Sogdian script. This script is called Blue Turkish or Runic inscriptions in science, and it has been studied since the 17th century. Found in Central Asia (Fergana, Ettisuv, Zarafshan Valley). It consists of 38-40 letters.It was formed on the basis of the Sogdian script. This script is called Blue Turkish or Runic inscriptions in science, and it has been studied since the 17th century. Found in Central Asia (Fergana, Ettisuv, Zarafshan Valley). It consists of 38-40 letters.
Now let's talk about the types of writing. Every entry it was able to satisfy the needs of humanity in its time. So, records in the past people conveying some events to others in times that have not yet appeared used pictures for Draw a picture of different living and non-living things explained their goals. Such an inscription is called a pictographic inscription named The units of this writing were called icons. of the United States famous scientist L. Bloomfield gives the following examples of this writing: American A member of the local Ojibwa tribe had the long bark of a tree. A number of symbols are drawn on the bark (fox, owl, etc.).
showed the order of the sacred song to be sung. Another example.
A member of the tribe is a merchant, and this is a line that crosses two lines
a beaver with a rifle on one side of the cuts and thirty parallels next to it dashes, and on the other side, a picture of a marten, a marten, and a coot
sent the letter. The meaning of this letter is as follows: "I am savsar, suvsar."
and to exchange furs for a gun and the skins of thirty beavers I agree". But this writing is a bit difficult to understand and explain to others.
After all, everyone should describe this type of writing in their own order
can't. For example, we are also featured in school textbooks and various magazines
seeing rebuses, having a hard time understanding them and finding the correct meaning we will come Because the given picture has a different effect on everyone. For example, if it is said to find the name of the work based on the given pictures, the sequence of the pictures we can guess the name of the work depending on the sequence. One after the other in the assignment the stars and the sky are depicted. What book do you think this is referring to? In me There are two assumptions about this picture, the first is "Starry Nights" and the second is "Stars will burn forever."
Now, what can readers think about this? Of course, everyone has a different opinion. For example, look at the brightness of the stars the reader says that this work is "Stars burn forever", and another one is in the night seeing the stars, he calls this work "The work of starry nights. That is, who is what in the picture when he sees it, he says so. What I mean by this example is, in my opinion, Based on this writing, there are some difficulties in ancient times and today on understanding and analyzing meanings. That's why In the development stages of writing, this writing is left behind, and during it is new new records began to appear. Pictographic writing is also said to have been left behind we cannot say, because this script gradually developed and turned into an ideographic script.
Some scientists call this type of writing logographic writing, because in this
words not only reflect things, but also express words in the language. Each in the language word has its own symbol. The unit of idiographic writing is called an idiogram they conduct. Also, the difference between a logogram and an icon The fact is that icons represent objects, and logograms represent words the meaning is explained. The ancient Arabs expressed the number "hundred thousand" through the form of itbaliq explained. The Chinese use the word "good" through the symbol of a woman and a child showed. A slightly improved form of logographic writing is hieroglyphics is called writing. With something expressed in hieroglyphs, even if it is little an associated feature is preserved. This inscription belongs to ancient Arabia and It depends on the current China. By this stage, the concept of the alphabet based on hieroglyphic writings also entered will come. Because now in this writing, remember various conventional symbols and hieroglyphs needed. So that everyone can understand the same and the information they represent Alphabet was the best way to make no difference between them. Back to logographic writing as an example, the cuneiform writing used in Ancient Mesopotamia we can bring.

But these records gradually change and lose their importance started This is because these inscriptions were written on clay. Later on people felt the need for another, more perfect form of writing. This There are many examples of needs. Basically, reading and writing, after that

speeding up the discovery of a new script for trade and the establishment of states sent Humans tried to simplify writing as much as possible, and that's it as a result, phonographic recording was discovered. Phonographic recording of the language is only grammatical did not express its structure, but showed its phonetic structure and sound composition.
There are many forms of phonetic writing, one of which is syllabic or syllabic is an inscription. This record is formed by dividing compound words into parts. And this corresponds to the present syllables. This script is called Devanagari, an ancient Indian script will be a good example.
As a result of the appearance of phonographic recording, the era of writing began.
Currently, approximately three-quarters of the world's population is from this script
they use At present, there are four main alphabetic alphabets consists of a system. 30% of the world's population from the Latin script, Slavic-krillitsa 10% of the population uses Arabic script, 10% uses Arabic script, and 20% uses Hindi script.
As I mentioned above, there are several types of phonographic recording.
The first is syllabic or syllabic writing, and the second is phonetic word forms units are represented by sounds. Early alphabetic writing Nile River
was created by the Hyksos who invaded the valley. They are Egyptian hieroglyphics taking twenty of his writings and through them the vowels and consonants of his language who created the alphabet that represents The word alphabet is Hyksos alif Also, there are many types of alphabets in the world.
The largest of them is the Cambodian alphabet, which has 74 letters. The smallest
The alphabet is considered to be the Solomon Island alphabet, and it has 11 letters in total.
Although the phonographic record is one of the most common records
however, there are many other types of writing. This writings are inextricably linked with each other and each has its own place in society there is For example, pictographic writing today is more for advertising, right easy for foreigners who don't know the language for signs and pictures showing the way to create, that is, for hotel and other location signs is used. Ideograms are used more in street movements, defining territories, etc used in different numbers and characters. Pictograms are like idiograms symbols are used. But the difference between them is in the icons more pictures and pictures play a role. And in ideograms, mainly forms and symbols represent a certain meaning. Also, they are similar to each other there are also aspects. Even today, because they are short and understandable has not lost its importance. All types of writing listed above graphic department studies and today it is more than types of writing There are also special types of writing. Examples of these types of writing are shorthand and we can get transcriptions.
Shorthand is a slightly more complicated type of writing to write this down
special preparation will be required. Also compare it with letter writing
possible Because they write the speech on paper faster in special situations
used to get The advantage of this is that this writing is spoken
allows you to quickly and easily record what is being said. This entry
It is widely used in lectures and meetings.

Transcription is a special type of writing, just like shorthand. This

we use writing to write the pronunciation of more words. We know that
English words differ from Uzbek words in that they are read more.⁷
In this case, we use the transcription so that we can pronounce the words in English correctly we use and make our learning easier. But, transcription
not the same for everyone. This record is used only for a specific need.
Its possibilities are a little less compared to other types of writing. This the importance and role of writing in reading and teaching foreign languages ​​is very great. Even now, the Latin of the International Phonetic Association is in this direction
Transcription created on the basis of language graphics is also widely used.
Another branch of transcription is transliteration.
Transliteration is the conversion of characters or letters from one language into characters and letters from another language is to express with For example, the transcription of the word summit in English
[smit] or the word card is [ka:d]. It helps us to improve our pronunciation
will help.
One of today's modern writings is for blind people is a record. This script includes the Braille alphabet. Braille is it fonts consisting of embossed letters. This alphabet was created by L. Braille. Braille
based on the font, 6 points are used in different situations. But the inventor is this alphabet based on the sequence of Latin letters. This is Uzbek according to the alphabet
works of writers A. Kadiri ("Past Days") and V. Gafurov ("Faithful")
published.

There are many people who are blind today because of this writing

books are being published on this note. Not only books, but also electronic
information is being developed specially for them. It's too much for them
opens up great opportunities.