Thin slices.
Many IPA measures use a thin-slice methodology. The term thin slices refers to short
excerpts of dynamic stimuli, such as a brief video or audio clip of sender behavior (Ambady 2010);
sometimes, photo stimuli are also referred to as thin slices. NVB expressed within a thin slice may
validly predict social outcomes, for instance, company profits predicted from perceivers’ ratings
of their CEOs’ faces (Rule & Tskhay 2014). Determining causal (or noncausal) mechanisms in
such prediction studies remains a challenge for researchers. Thin slices are also used in many IPA
measures, most often to measure emotion judgments, but thin-slice methodology has also been
used to demonstrate accuracy in perceiving many other characteristics. From a methodological
perspective, thin slices reliably represent relative amounts of specific NVBs expressed during an
interaction; that is, slices of a particular behavior were predictive of that same behavior in other
slices (Murphy et al. 2015). While the validity and reliability of the thin-slice methodology may
depend on the particular behavior and context from which the slice was extracted, studies of the
thin-slice methodology suggest that thin slices may reliably and validly measure specific NVBs
and predict a wide range of outcome variables (Murphy et al. 2015, 2018).
Additional Considerations in Understanding Interpersonal Accuracy
Other factors that may influence IPA include perceiver gender, perceiver motivation, and training.
Research typically demonstrates that women tend to outperform men on an array of IPA mea-
sures, with the largest body of relevant research pertaining to the judgment of emotions. Some
exceptions also depend on the specific measure or the qualities being judged. Gender differences
in IPA may arise due to evolutionary, motivational, or gender socialization processes (Hall et al.
2016a).
IPA researchers have also investigated the effects of increased or decreased motivation on
perceiver accuracy, with inconsistent results (Biesanz & Human 2010, Hall et al. 2009b). The
effects of increased or decreased motivation on IPA are likely moderated by many factors, such as
the specific IPA test (including its difficulty), relationship factors, and the content and valence of
the motivational inducement (Schmid 2016).
As discussed above, both distal and proximal effects are no doubt operative. The same construct
may even operate at both levels. To continue with motivation as an example, the motivation to be
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accurate on a particular test during a particular test administration (a proximal time factor) may
operate independently from lifetime motivation to be a good judge of other people. In turn, being
a good judge may impact one’s trait accuracy via repeated past experiences of careful attention to
cues, efforts to get feedback on one’s judgments, one’s responses to feedback, and so forth. Over
time, these experiences may result in better knowledge of the meanings of cues and better strategies
for judgment (distal time factors). The motivational processes operating in a given testing occasion
might be very different: Motivation that is activated during IPA testing could affect attentional
processes (for example) but not how much knowledge one has accumulated about the meanings of
nonverbal cues. Proximal and distal determinants of IPA could be independent or even interactive
(e.g., a proximal influence such as high motivation in the moment might be operative only for
individuals who already possess high trait or knowledge-based accuracy; K. Ogawa & J.A. Hall,
unpublished manuscript). Research does show a positive relationship between knowledge about
cues and performance on an audiovisual IPA test (e.g., Schlegel & Scherer 2018).
Training perceivers to improve their IPA is effective across clinical and nonclinical populations.
A meta-analysis confirmed that a combination of feedback and practice helps improve IPA per-
formance (Blanch-Hartigan et al. 2012). Improvements in emotion recognition have been found
after training with a self-administered program of instruction, practice, and feedback that takes
less than an hour (Schlegel et al. 2017b). In that research, the benefits of training lasted several
weeks and also generalized across several different IPA tests. The ability to experimentally inter-
vene in participants’ IPA is a significant breakthrough in researchers’ ability to design studies to
determine the causal impact of IPA on social and personal outcomes.
In this review, we mostly consider correlates of IPA, but important questions remain about un-
derstanding mean levels of IPA. Authors commonly report that perceivers are accurate when what
they are referring to is accuracy that is statistically significant above the guessing or chance level.
Sometimes levels of accuracy are not impressively high even when they are statistically significant
(for example, in lie detection; Bond & DePaulo 2006). Yet even levels barely above chance can be
impressive if the stimuli are extremely brief or degraded. Furthermore, the various IPA measure-
ment approaches and scoring methodologies create difficulties in comparing across tests or across
types of accuracy (Hall et al. 2008). For example, emotion judgment tasks are typically scored as
percent accuracy, while personality judgment tasks are often scored as correlation coefficients; fur-
thermore, even tests scored as percent accuracy cannot be compared directly if the guessing level
within the test (as determined by the number of response options) varies from test to test. Various
statistical conversions allow comparisons between tests and scoring methods, but until there is
widespread adoption of such calculations, readers may be left wondering how an accuracy score of
r
=
0.38 in judging intelligence compares to a 55% accuracy score in judging leadership ability.
IPA measures tend to be correlated with other favorable social traits. A meta-analysis of IPA
and psychosocial variables showed that higher IPA significantly correlated with more conscien-
tiousness, less neuroticism, and more tolerance (Hall et al. 2009a), among other traits. Also, a
meta-analysis showed that IPA measures themselves tend to correlate with one another at only
modest levels; given these modest effect sizes, there remain questions about what, precisely, is
being measured in IPA tests (Schlegel et al. 2017a). More specifically, is IPA one underlying con-
struct that unites accuracy in judging domains ranging from emotion recognition, to personality
traits, to judgments of political orientation? Or are various IPA measures assessing distinct skills?
To date, it appears that measures of emotion recognition form a more coherent latent construct
than do tests measuring other content, perhaps due to better psychometric properties and more
homogeneity of content in tests measuring emotion perception.
Furthermore, while we may know a lot about constructs related to IPA, there is no consistent
tradition of exploring the predictive value of IPA. Correlational evidence suggests the likelihood
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that IPA does impact social outcomes, although causality remains to be determined. Behavioral
adaptability, which is the ability to adapt one’s behaviors to the needs and preferences of an
interaction partner, has been suggested as a possible mechanism to explain why IPA may relate to
positive behavioral outcomes (Schmid Mast & Hall 2018).
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