crushing, the tiny clumps of branching microorgan-
isms with radiating filaments in pus, give a ‘starburst
appearance’ which prompted Harz (1879) to coin the
name Actinomyces or ‘ray fungus’. Four years later
Actinomyces israelii was isolated from humans in pure
culture, characterized and its pathogenicity in animals
demonstrated (Wolff & Israel 1891). Many researchers,
nevertheless, considered the human and bovine isolates
as identical. However, A. bovis and A. israelii are now
classified as two distinct bacterial species and in natural
infections the former is restricted to animals and the
latter to humans.
Human actinomycosis is clinically divided into
cervicofacial, thoracic and abdominal forms. About
60% of the cases occur in the cervicofacial region, 20%
in the abdomen and 15% in the thorax (Kapsimalis &
Garrington 1968, Oppenheimer et al. 1978). The most
common species isolated from humans is A. israelii
(Wolff & Israel 1891), which is followed by Propioni-
bacterium propionicum
(Buchanan
& Pine
1962),
Actinomyces naeslundii (Thompson & Lovestedt 1951),
Actinomyces viscosus (Howell et al. 1965) and Actino-
myces odontolyticus (Batty 1958) in descending order.
Periapical actinomycosis (Fig. 4) is a cervicofacial
form of actinomycosis. The endodontic infections are
generally a sequel to caries. Actinomyces israelii is a
commensal of the oral cavity and can be isolated from
tonsils, dental plaque, periodontal pockets and carious
Nair Persistent apical periodontitis
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
255
lesions (Sundqvist & Reuterving 1980). Most of the
publications on periapical actinomycosis are case
reports and have been reviewed (Browne & O’Riordan
1966, Samanta et al. 1975, Weir & Buck 1982, Martin
& Harrison 1984, Nair & Schroeder 1984, Sakellariou
1996). Although periapical actinomycosis is considered
Figure 4
An actinomyces-infected periapical pocket cyst affecting a human maxillary first premolar (radiographic inset). The cyst
is lined with ciliated columnar (CEP) and stratified squamous (SEP) epithelia. The rectangular block in (a) is magnified in (c). The
typical ‘ray-fungus’ type of actnomycotic colony (AC in b) is a magnification of the one demarcated in (c). Note the two black
arrow-headed, distinct actinomycotic colonies within the lumen (LU). Original magnifications: (a)
·20, (b) ·60, (c) ·210. From
P.N.R. Nair et al. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology and Endodontics 94: 485–93, 2002.
Persistent apical periodontitis Nair
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
256
to be rare (Nair & Schroeder 1984), it may not be so
infrequent (Monteleone 1963, Hylton et al. 1970,
Sakellariou 1996). The data on the frequency of
periapical actinomycosis among apical periodontitis
lesions are scarce. A microbiological control study
revealed actinomycotic involvement in two of the 79
endodontically treated cases (Bystro¨m et al. 1987). A
histological
analysis
showed
the
presence
of
characteristic actinomycotic colonies (Fig. 5) in two
of the 45 investigated lesions (Nair & Schroeder 1984).
An identification and aetiological association of the
species involved can be established only through
laboratory culturing (Sundqvist & Reuterving 1980)
of the organisms, molecular techniques and by experi-
mental induction of the lesion in susceptible animals
(Figdor et al. 1992). However, the strict growth
requirements of A. israelii make isolation in pure
culture difficult. A histopathological diagnosis has
generally been reached on the basis of demonstration
of typical colonies (Nair & Schroeder 1984) and by
specific immunohistochemical staining of such colonies
(Sundqvist & Reuterving 1980, Happonen et al. 1985).
Today, an unequivocal identification of the organism
can be achieved by molecular methods. The charac-
teristic light microscopic feature of an actinomycotic
colony is the presence of an intensely dark staining,
Gram and PAS positive, core with radiating peripheral
filaments (Fig. 5) that gives the typical ‘star burst’ or
‘ray fungus’ appearance. Ultrastructurally (Nair &
Schroeder 1984, Figdor et al. 1992), the centre of the
colony consists of a very dense aggregation of branch-
ing filamentous organisms held together by an extra-
cellular matrix (Fig. 5). Several layers of PMN usually
surround an actinomycotic colony.
Because of the ability of the actinomycotic organisms
to establish extraradicularly, they can perpetuate the
inflammation at the periapex even after proper root
canal treatment. Therefore, periapical actinomycosis is
important in endodontics (Sundqvist & Reuterving
1980, Nair & Schroeder 1984, Happonen et al. 1985,
Happonen 1986, Sjo¨gren et al. 1988, Nair et al. 1999).
Actinomyces israelii and P. proprionicum are consistently
isolated and characterized from the periapical tissue of
teeth, which did not respond to proper non-surgical
endodontic treatment (Happonen 1986, Sjo¨gren et al.
1988). A strain of A. israelii, isolated from a case of
failed endodontic treatment and grown in pure culture,
was inoculated into subcutaneously implanted tissue
cages in experimental animals. Typical actinomycotic
colonies were formed within the experimental host
tissue. This would implicate A. israelii as a potential
aetiological factor of persistent apical periodontitis
following root canal treatment. Actinomyces have been
shown to posses a hydrophobic cell surface property,
Gram-positive cell wall surrounded by a fuzzy outer
coat through which fimbriae-like structures protrude
(Figdor & Davies 1997). These may help the cells to
aggregate into cohesive colonies (Figdor et al. 1992).
The properties that enable these bacteria to establish in
the periapical tissues are not fully understood, but
appear to involve the ability to build cohesive colonies
that enables them to escape host defence systems
(Figdor et al. 1992). Propionibacterium propionicum is
known to be pathogenic and associated with actino-
mycotic infections. But the mechanism of pathogenicity
of the organism has not yet been explained.
Other extraradicular microbes
Apical periodontitis has long been considered to be a
dynamic defence enclosure against unrestrained inva-
sion of microorganisms into periradicular tissues (Kron-
feld 1939, Nair 1997). It is, therefore, conceivable that
microorganisms generally invade extraradicular tissues
during expanding and exacerbating phases of the
disease process. Based on classical histology (Harndt
1926) there has been a consensus of opinion that ‘solid
granuloma’ may not harbour infectious agents within
the inflamed periapical tissue, but microorganisms are
consistently present in the periapical tissue of cases with
clinical signs of exacerbation, abscesses and draining
sinuses. This has been substantiated by more modern
correlative light and transmission electron microscopic
investigations (Nair 1987).
However, in the late 1980s, there was a resurgence
of the concept of extraradicular microbes in apical
periodontitis (Tronstad et al. 1987, 1990, Iwu et al.
1990, Wayman et al. 1992) with the controversial
suggestion that extraradicular infections are the cause
of many failed endodontic treatments; such cases
would not be amenable to a non-surgical approach
but would require apical surgery and/or systemic
medications. Several species of bacteria have been
reported to be present at extraradicular locations of
lesions described as ‘asymptomatic periapical inflam-
matory lesions
… refractory to endodontic treatment’
(Tronstad et al. 1987). However, five of the eight
patients had ‘long-standing fistulae to the vestibule
…’
(Tronstad et al. 1987), a clear sign of abscessed apical
periodontitis draining by fistulation. Obviously the
microbial samples were obtained from periapical
abscesses that always contain microbes and not from
asymptomatic periapical lesions persisting after proper
Nair Persistent apical periodontitis
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
257
Figure 5
Periapical actinomycosis. Note the presence of an actinomycotic colony (AC) in the body of a human apical periodontitis
lesion (GR) revealing typical ‘starburst’ appearance (inset in a). The transmission electron microscopic montage (b) shows the
peripheral area of the colony with filamentous organisms surrounded by few layers of neutrophilic granulocytes (NG). D, dentine;
ER, erythrocytes. Original magnifications: (a)
·70; inset ·250; (b) ·2200. Adapted from Nair & Schroeder (1984). Printed with
permission from Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
ª
.
Persistent apical periodontitis Nair
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
258
endodontic treatment. Other publications also show
serious deficiencies. In one (Iwu et al. 1990), the 16
periapical specimens studied were collected ‘during
normal periapical curettage, apicectomy or [during
the procedure of] retrograde filling’. Of the 58 specimens
that were investigated in another (Wayman et al.
1992), ‘29 communicated with the oral cavity through
vertical root fractures or fistulas’. Further, the speci-
mens were obtained during routine surgery and were
‘submitted by seven practitioners’. An appropriate
methodology is essential and in these studies (Tronstad
et al. 1987, Iwu et al. 1990, Wayman et al. 1992)
unsuitable cases were selected for investigation or the
sampling was not performed with the utmost stringency
needed to avoid bacterial contamination (Mo¨ller 1966).
Microbial contamination of periapical samples is
generally believed to occur from the oral cavity and
other extraneous sources. Even if such ‘extraneous
contaminations’ are avoided, contamination of periap-
ical tissue samples with microbes from the infected root
canal remains a problem. This is because microorgan-
isms generally live at the apical foramen (Fig. 6) of
teeth with persistent apical periodontitis (Nair et al.
1990a, 1999) and also of those that have not
undergone root canal treatment (Nair 1987). Here
microbes can be easily dislodged during surgery and
the sampling procedures. Tissue samples contaminated
with intraradicular microbes may be reported positive
for the presence of an extraradicular infection. This is
probably the reason behind the repeated reporting of
bacteria in the periapical tissue of asymptomatic
persistent apical lesions by microbial culture (Abou-
Rass & Bogen 1997, Sunde et al. 2002) and molecular
techniques (Gatti et al. 2000, Sunde et al. 2000) in
spite of using strict aseptic sampling procedures.
Although there is an understandable enthusiasm
with molecular techniques, they seem less suitable to
solve the problem of extraradicular infection. Apart
from the unavoidable contamination of the samples
with intraradicular microbes, the DNA-based molecular
genetic analysis: (1) does not differentiate between
viable and non-viable organisms, (2) does not distin-
guish between microbes and their structural elements
in phagocytes from extracellular microorganisms in
periapical tissues and (3) exaggerates the findings by
PCR amplification.
In summary, extraradicular infections do occur in: (i)
exacerbating apical periodontitis lesions (Nair 1987),
(ii) periapical actinomycosis (Sundqvist & Reuterving
1980, Nair & Schroeder 1984, Happonen et al. 1985,
Happonen 1986, Sjo¨gren et al. 1988), (iii) association
with pieces of infected root dentine that may be
displaced into the periapex during root canal instru-
mentation (Holland et al. 1980, Yusuf 1982) or having
been cut off from the rest of the root by massive apical
resorption (Valderhaug 1974, Laux et al. 2000) and
(iv) infected periapical cysts (Fig. 4), particularly in
periapical pocket cysts with cavities open to the root
canal (Nair 1987, Nair et al. 1996, 1999). These
situations are quite compatible (Nair 1997, Berg-
enholtz & Spa˚ngberg 2004) with the long-standing
and still valid concept that solid granuloma generally
do not harbour microorganisms. Therefore, the main
target of treatment of persistent apical periodontitis
should be the microorganisms located within the
complex apical root canal system.
Extraradicular viruses
A series of publications appeared recently (Sabeti et al.
2003a,b,c, Sabeti & Slots 2004) that report the
presence of certain viruses in inflamed periapical tissues
with the suggestion of an ‘etio-pathogenic relationship’
to apical periodontitis. The findings were reviewed in
another publication even before some of the original
works appeared in print (Slots et al. 2003). It is almost
impossible to provide controls for such claims because
the reported viruses are present in almost all humans in
latent form from previous primary infections. The
possibility that the periapical inflammatory process
activates the viruses, existing in latent form, cannot be
excluded.
Non-microbial causes
Cystic apical periodontitis
The question as to whether or not periapical cysts heal
after non-surgical root canal treatment has been long-
standing. Oral surgeons are of opinion that cysts do not
heal and should be removed by surgery. Many endo-
dontists, on the other hand, hold the view that majority
of cysts heal after endodontic treatment. This conflict of
opinion is probably an outcome of the reported high
incidence of cysts among apical periodontitis and the
reported high ‘success rate’ of root canal treatments.
There have been several studies on the prevalence of
radicular cysts among human apical periodontitis
(Table 1). The recorded incidence of cysts among apical
periodontitis lesions varies from 6% to 55%. Apical
periodontitis cannot be differentially diagnosed into
cystic and non-cystic lesions based on radiographs
alone (Priebe et al. 1954, Baumann & Rossman 1956,
Nair Persistent apical periodontitis
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
259
Wais 1958, Linenberg et al. 1964, Bhaskar 1966,
Lalonde 1970, Mortensen et al. 1970). A correct
histopathological diagnosis of periapical cysts is poss-
ible only through serial sectioning or step-serial
sectioning of the lesions removed in toto. The vast
discrepancy in the reported incidence of periapical cysts
is probably due to the difference in the interpretation of
the sections. Histopathological diagnosis based on
random or limited number of serial sections, usually
leads to the incorrect categorization of epithelialized
lesions as radicular cysts. This was clearly shown in a
study using meticulous serial sectioning (Nair et al.
1996) in which an overall 52% of the lesions
(n
¼ 256) were found to be epithelialized but
only 15% were actually periapical cysts. In routine
histopathological diagnosis, the structure of a radicular
cyst in relation to the root canal of the affected tooth
has not been taken into account. As apical biopsies
Figure 6
Well-entrenched biofilm at the apical foramen of a tooth affected with apical periodontitis (GR). The apical delta in (a) is
magnified in (b). The canal ramifications on the left and right in (b) are magnified in (c) and (d), respectively. Note the strategic
location of the bacterial clusters (BA) at the apical foramina. The bacterial mass appears to be held back by a wall of neutrophilic
granulocytes (NG). Obviously, any surgical and/or microbial sampling procedures of the periapical tissue would contaminate the
sample with the intraradicular flora. EP, epithelium. Original magnifications: (a)
·20, (b) ·65, (c, d) ·350. (From P.N.R. Nair,
Pathology of the periapex. In: Cohen S, Burns RC, eds. Pathways of the Pulp. St Louis, MO, USA, 2002; Reprinted with permission
from Mosby
ª
.
Persistent apical periodontitis Nair
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
260
obtained by curettage do not include root-tips of the
diseased teeth, structural reference to the root canals of
the affected teeth is not possible. Histopathological
diagnostic laboratories and publications based on
retrospective reviewing of such histopathological re-
ports sustain the notion that nearly half of all apical
periodontitis are cysts.
An endodontic ‘success rate’ of 85–90% has been
recorded by investigators (Staub 1963, Kerekes &
Tronstad 1979, Sjo¨gren et al. 1990). However, the
histological status of an apical radiolucent lesion at the
time of treatment is unknown to the clinician who is
also unaware of the differential diagnosis of the
‘successful’ and ‘failed’ cases. Nevertheless, purely
based on deductive logic, the great majority of cystic
lesions should heal in order to account for the ‘high
success rate’ after endodontic treatment and the
reported ‘high histopathological incidence’ of radicular
cysts. As orthograde root canal treatment removes
much of the infectious material from the root canal and
prevents reinfection by filling, a periapical pocket cyst
(Fig. 7) may heal after such treatment (Simon 1980,
Nair et al. 1993, 1996). But a true cyst (Fig. 8) is
self-sustaining (Nair et al. 1993) by virtue of its tissue
dynamics and independence of the presence or absence
of irritants in the root canal (Simon 1980).
The therapeutic significance of the structural differ-
ence between apical true cysts and pocket cysts should
also be considered. The aim of root canal treatment is
the elimination of infection from the root canal and the
prevention of reinfection by root filling. Periapical
pocket cysts, particularly the smaller ones, may heal
after root canal therapy (Simon 1980). A true cyst is
self-sustaining as the lesion is no longer dependent on
the presence or absence of root canal infection (Simon
1980, Nair et al. 1996). Therefore, the true cysts,
particularly the large ones, are less likely to be resolved
by non-surgical root canal treatment. This has been
reported in a long-term radiographic follow-up (Fig. 9)
of a case and subsequent histological analysis of the
surgical block-biopsy (Nair et al. 1993). It can be
argued that the prevalence of cysts in persistent apical
periodontitis should be substantially higher than that
in primary apical periodontitis. However, this remains
to be clarified by research based on a statistically
reliable number of specimens. Limited investigations
(Nair et al. 1990a, 1993, 1999) on 16 histologically
reliable block biopsies of persistent apical periodontitis
revealed two cystic specimens (13%), which is higher
than the 9% of true cysts observed in a large study
(Nair et al. 1996) on mostly primary apical periodon-
titis lesions. The two distinct histological categories of
periapical cysts and the low prevalence of cystic lesions
among apical periodontitis would question the ration-
ale of disproportionate application of apical surgery
based on unfounded radiographic diagnosis of apical
lesions as cysts, and the widely held belief that majority
of cysts heal after non-surgical root canal treatment.
Nevertheless, clinicians must recognize the fact that the
cysts can sustain apical periodontitis post-treatment,
and consider the option of apical surgery, particularly
when previous attempts at non-surgical retreatment
have not resulted in healing (Nair 2003b).
Cholesterol crystals
Although the presence of cholesterol crystals in apical
periodontitis lesions has long been observed to be a
common histopathological feature, its aetiological sig-
nificance to failed root canal treatments has not yet
been fully appreciated (Nair 1999). Cholesterol (Taylor
1988) is a steroid lipid that is present in abundance in
all ‘membrane-rich’ animal cells. Excess blood level of
cholesterol is suspected to play a role in atherosclerosis
as a result of its deposition in the vascular walls (Yeagle
1988, 1991). Deposition of cholesterol crystals in
tissues and organs can cause ailments such as otitis
Table 1
The incidence of radicular cysts among apical peri-
odontitis lesions
Reference
Cysts
(%)
Granuloma
(%)
Others
(%)
Total
lesions
(n)
Sommer et al. (1966)
6
84
10
170
Block et al. (1976)
6
94
–
230
Sonnabend & Oh (1966)
7
93
–
237
Winstock (1980)
8
83
9
9804
Linenberg et al. (1964)
9
80
11
110
Wais (1958)
14
84
2
50
Patterson et al. (1964)
14
84
2
501
Nair et al. (1996)
15
50
35
256
Simon (1980)
17
77
6
35
Stockdale &
Chandler (1988)
17
77
6
1108
Lin et al. (1991)
19
–
81
150
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