magnified in (c) and that in the same is further magnified in (d). Note the tip of the paper point (FB) projecting into the apical
periodontitis lesion and the bacterial plaque (BP) adhering to the surface of the paper point. RT, root tip; EP, epithelium; PC, plant
cell. Original magnifications: (a)
·20, (b) ·40, (c) ·60, (d) ·150. From P.N.R. Nair, Pathology of apical periodontitis. In: Ørstavik
D, Pitt Ford TR, eds: Essential Endodontology. Oxford, 1998.
Persistent apical periodontitis Nair
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
274
persistence of periapical radiolucency after root canal
treatment. These are: (i) intraradicular infection per-
sisting in the complex apical root canal system; (ii)
extraradicular infection, generally in the form of
periapical actinomycosis; (iii) extruded root canal filling
or other exogenous materials that cause a foreign body
reaction; (iv) accumulation of endogenous cholesterol
crystals that irritate periapical tissues; (v) true cystic
lesions, and (vi) scar tissue healing of the periapex. It
must be emphasized that of all these factors, residual
microbes in the apical portion of the root canal system
is the major cause of apical periodontitis persisting post-
treatment in both poorly and properly treated cases.
Extraradicular actinomycosis, true cysts, foreign-body
reaction and scar tissue healing are of rare occurrence.
However, the presence of a suspected causative agent
Figure 19
Periapical scar (SC) of a root canal (RC)-treated tooth after 5-year follow-up and surgery. The rectangular demarcated
areas in (b–d) are magnified in (c–e), respectively. The scar tissue reveals bundles of collagen fibres (CO), blood vessels (BV) and
erythrocytes due to haemorrhage. Infiltrating inflammatory cells are notably absent. Original magnifications: (a)
·14, (b) ·35, (c)
·90, (d) ·340, (e) ·560. Adapted from Nair et al. (1999). Reprinted with permission from Elsevier
ª
.
Nair Persistent apical periodontitis
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
275
does not imply an aetiological relationship of the agent
to the development and/or maintenance of the disease.
It is also necessary to differentiate between a mere
presence and the ability of the agent to induce the
disease or similar pathological changes in susceptible
experimental animals. This is particularly important in
infectious diseases in which the microbes have to be
present within the body milieu. In apical periodontitis
and periodontal diseases, the microbes are stationed in
the necrotic pulp or periodontal pocket, which are
outside the body milieu. Viable and metabolically active
microbes present at those locations would release
antigenic molecules that irritate periodontal tissues
both at the apical and marginal sites to cause inflam-
mation, irrespective of them living there with or
without virulence and tissue invasiveness. Neverthe-
less, among the viruses (Sabeti et al. 2003a,b,c, Sabeti
& Slots 2004) and various species of other microorgan-
isms that have been reported to be associated with
persistent apical periodontitis (Molander et al. 1998,
Sundqvist et al. 1998, Peciuliene et al. 2000, Hancock
et al. 2001, Pinheiro et al. 2003, Siqueira & Roˆc¸as
2004, Fouad et al. 2005) a positive experimental
follow-up has been completed only with Actinomyces
israelii (Figdor et al. 1992). The periapical disease-
producing ability of other reported infectious agents,
either singly or in combination, has yet to be demon-
strated. Among the probable non-microbial agents that
have been identified in association with persisting
apical periodontitis, a positive tissue irritating ability
has been experimentally demonstrated for fine partic-
ulate gutta-percha (Sjo¨gren et al. 1995) and cholesterol
crystals (Nair et al. 1998).
While intraradicular infection is the essential cause of
apical periodontitis affecting teeth that have not
undergone root canal treatment and probably the
major cause of persistent apical periodontitis, the cher-
ished goal of endodontic treatment has been to elim-
inate infectious agents or to substantially reduce the
microbial load from the root canal and to prevent
re-infection by root filling (Nair 2004, Nair et al.
2005). Periapical healing of some teeth occurs even
when microbes are present in the canals at the time of
filling (Sjo¨gren et al. 1997). Microbes may be present in
quantities and virulence that may be sub-critical to
sustain the inflammation of the periapex, or that they
remain in a location where they cannot communicate
with the periapical tissues (Nair et al. 2005). The great
anatomical complexity of the root canal system (Hess
1921, Perrini & Castagnola 1998) and the organiza-
tion of the microbes into protected adhesive biofilms
(Costerton & Stewart 2000, Costerton et al. 2003)
composed of microbial cells embedded in a hydrated
exopolysaccharide-complex in micro-colonies (Nair
1987, Nair et al. 2005) make it unlikely that a sterile
canal-system can be achieved by contemporary tech-
nology in endodontics (Nair et al. 2005). As the
primacy of residual intracanal infection in persistent
apical periodontitis has been recognized (Nair et al.
1990a), the main target of treatment should be the
microorganisms residing within the complex root canal
system.
However, the tissue dynamics of apical periodontitis
persisting from foreign body reaction and cystic condi-
tion are not dependent on the presence or absence of
infectious agents/irritants in the root canal. The host
defence cells that accumulate in sites of foreign body
reaction and reside in cystic lesions are not only unable
to resolve the pathology, but are also major sources of
inflammatory and bone resorptive cytokines and other
mediators. There is clinical and histological evidence
that the presence of tissue-irritating foreign materials at
the periapex, such as extruded root-filling materials,
endodontic paper-points, particles of foods and accu-
mulation of endogenous cholesterol crystals, adversely
affect post-treatment healing of the periapical tissues.
The overall prevalence of foreign body reaction at the
periapex and cystic lesions among persistent apical
periodontitis is currently unknown, but the occurrence
of such cases may be very rare. Nevertheless, initiation
of a foreign body reaction in periapical tissues by
exogenous materials, endogenous cholesterol and cys-
tic transformation of the lesion delay or prevent post-
treatment healing. In well-treated teeth with adequate
root fillings, a non-surgical retreatment is unlikely to
resolve the problem, as it does not remove the offending
objects, substances and pathology that exist beyond the
root canal (Koppang et al. 1989, 1992, Nair et al.
1990a,b, 1993, 1999). Currently, a clinical differential
diagnosis for the existence of these extraradicular
causative agents of persistent apical periodontitis is
not possible. Further, the great majority of persistent
apical periodontitis are caused by residual infection in
the complex apical root canal system (Hess 1921,
Perrini & Castagnola 1998). It is not guaranteed that
an orthograde root canal retreatment of an otherwise
well-treated tooth can eradicate the residual intraradi-
cular infection. Therefore, with cases of asymptomatic,
persistent, periapical radiolucencies, clinicians should
consider the necessity of removing the extraradicular
factors through apical surgery (Kim 2002), in order to
improve the long-term outcome of treatment. Apical
Persistent apical periodontitis Nair
International Endodontic Journal, 39, 249–281, 2006
ª 2006 International Endodontic Journal
276
surgery provides an opportunity to remove the extra-
radicular agents that sustain the apical radiolucency
post-treatment and simultaneously allows a retrograde
access to any potential infection in the apical portion of
the root canal system that can also be removed or
sealed within the canal by a retrograde filling of the
apical root canal system (Nair 2003a).
Acknowledgements
The author is indebted to Mrs Margrit Amstad-Jossi for
skilful technical assistance. Some parts of this article
are heavily adapted from a previous publication by the
author, Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine,
15:348–81, 2005.
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