Philos Theor Pract Biol (2017) 9:14
Organisms as Persisters
Subrena E. Smith
∗
This paper addresses the question of what organisms are and therefore what kinds of bi-
ological entities qualify as organisms. For some time now, the concept of organismality
has been eclipsed by the notion of individuality. Biological individuals are those systems
that are units of selection. I develop a conception of organismality that does not rely on
evolutionary considerations, but instead draws on development and ecology. On this ac-
count, organismality and individuality can come apart. Organisms, in my view, are as
Godfrey-Smith puts it “essentially persisters.” I argue that persistence is underpinned by
differentiation, integration, development, and the constitutive embeddedness of organisms
in their worlds. I examine two marginal cases, the Portuguese Man O’ War and the honey
bee colony, and show that both count as organisms in light of my analysis. Next, I examine
the case of holobionts, hosts plus their microsymbionts, and argue that they can be counted
as organisms even though they may not be biological individuals. Finally, I consider the
question of whether other, less tightly integrated biological systems might also be treated
as organisms.
Keywords
Organisms • Persistence • Development • Environment • Holobionts • Godfrey-Smith, Peter
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Introduction
Some things are living and some are not. Under the heading “living things” come entities
at various levels of biological organization. Some are called “organisms.” However, the term
“organism” does not pick out organismal entities uniformly—that is, among all the things that
are considered to be whole living systems, some are regarded as indisputably organisms, and
others are accorded only qualified organismic status. Perhaps this is because it is not clear why
some biological systems should count as organisms and others should not.
This may, in part, explain why the concept of the organism has fallen out of fashion as a
theoretical component of biology. But it is starting to make a comeback. As Huneman and
Wolfe remark in an issue of History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences devoted to the organism
question:
∗
Department of Philosophy, University of New Hampshire, Hamilton Smith Hall, 95 Main Street,
Durham, NH, 03824, USA, subrena.smith@unh.edu
Received 9 June 2017; Revised 27 August 2017; Accepted 30 September 2017
doi:10.3998/ptb.6959004.0009.014
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smith: organisms as persisters
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The concept of organism has been due for reconsideration for a number of years
(with occasional calls for such reconsideration coming from historians, philoso-
phers or theoretical biologists, e.g. Benson 1989, Labichler 2000). During the past
fifteen-odd years a diverse body of work within the overall framework of the theory
of evolution has called for renewed focus on the concept of organism, which had
essentially disappeared with the rise of the modern synthesis in evolutionary the-
ory, being replaced with the categories of gene and population, since evolution was
defined as a process of change in allele frequencies within a population. (Huneman
and Wolfe 2010, 147)
“Organism” has been overshadowed by the notion of “biological individuality.” Confusingly,
there is not consensus about the conceptual relation between organismality and biological indi-
viduality. Some seem to treat individuality and organismality as interchangeable (e.g., Clarke
and Okasha 2013). Others understand the two concepts as separate and distinct (e.g., Godfrey-
Smith 2013). Still others hold that the concept of the organism should be eliminated from
scientific discourse, and replaced with that of the biological individual (e.g., Haber 2013, also
Wilson 2000).
This displacement is bound up with another, more theoretical, emphasis. Philosophers tend
to link individuality to evolutionary theory (Bouchard and Huneman 2013). That is, biological
individuals are units of selection. Given the theoretical coupling of individuality and evolu-
tionary considerations, it is not hard to see why the demotion of notion of the organism has
coincided with the rise of an emphasis on individuality. The view that selection can occur at
suborganismic and superorganismic levels is now a commonplace, so if selectability is what de-
termines individuality, then there seems to be no reason to privilege organisms as paradigmatic
individuals.
This paper is intended as a contribution to the case for organismality. The concept of the
organism, I believe, is helpful in picking out a form of biological organization that is distinct
from evolution-based conceptions of individuality and which draws instead on ecological and
developmental biology. My approach to what I call the organism question—the question of
what organisms are—is inspired by Peter Godfrey-Smith’s distinction between biological indi-
viduals (bearers of fitness, units of selection) and organisms, which he describes as essentially
persisters. Persistence, in this sense, is an ontogenetic rather than a phylogenetic notion. It per-
tains to individual organisms’ spatiotemporal careers. Various persistence conditions follow from
this. My account differs from Godfrey-Smith’s because I foreground the conditions that are
necessary for persistence. Organisms, in order to persist, must have well-differentiated and well-
integrated phenotypes that enable them to respond to the contingencies that they encounter.
The integration of differentiated parts, which allows for phenotypic accommodation, provides the
basis for the idea that organisms are in some sense whole systems (which is not to say that they
are not entangled with their environments). Additionally, I present the view that organisms are
not sharply distinguished from the worlds that they inhabit—that they are constitutively embed-
ded in their worlds. Having set out this theoretical apparatus, I discuss two non-paradigmatic
cases: the Portuguese Man O’ War and the honey bee colony, and I show that both count as
organisms by the criteria that I have set out. Next, I address the concept of holobiont systems.
The holobiont concept has been criticized on the grounds that holobionts cannot be units of
selection. I suggest that holobiotic systems may be fruitfully regarded as biological systems that
are organisms but not biological individuals. I conclude by considering whether other, more
loosely configured biological associations might be considered organisms (but not individuals),
and suggest that, unlike individuality, which is categorical, organismality is incremental. A bio-
logical system can have more or less of it, and where one draws the line between organism and
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smith: organisms as persisters
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non-organism is more a function of one’s explanatory project than a reflection of divisions in
nature.
The analysis presented in this paper is an exercise in conceptual clarification rather than
an empirical hypothesis. As such, it is intended as a contribution to the enrichment of the
vocabulary and conceptual repertoire of theoretical biology rather than as a set of claims that
form the basis for empirical predictions.
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