parts disappear? And, anyway, how could Jonah be right and everybody else
be wrong? Managers have always trimmed capacity to cut costs and increase
profits; that’s the game.
I’m beginning to think maybe this hiking model has thrown me off. I mean,
sure, it shows me the effect of statistical fluctuations and dependent events in
combination. But is it a balanced system? Let’s say the demand on us is to
walk two miles every hour—no more, no less. Could I adjust the capacity of
each kid so he would be able to walk two miles per hour and no faster? If I
could, I’d simply keep everyone moving constantly at the pace he should go
—by yelling, whip-cracking, money, whatever—and everything would be
perfectly balanced.
The problem is how can I realistically trim the capacity of fifteen kids?
Maybe I could tie each one’s ankles with pieces of rope so that each would
only take the same size step. But that’s a little kinky. Or maybe I could clone
myself fifteen times so I have a troop of Alex Rogos with exactly the same
trail-walking capacity. But that isn’t practical until we get some
advancements in
cloning
technology. Or maybe I could set up some other
kind of model, a more controllable one, to let me see beyond any doubt what
goes on.
I’m puzzling over how to do this when I notice a kid sitting at one of the
other tables, rolling a pair of dice. I guess he’s practicing for his next trip to
Vegas or something. I don’t mind—although I’m sure he won’t get any merit
badges for shooting craps —but the dice give me an idea. I get up and go
over to him.
"Say, mind if I borrow those for a while?’’ I ask.
The kid shrugs, then hands them over.
I go back to the table again and roll the dice a couple of times. Yes, indeed:
statistical fluctuations. Every time I roll the dice, I get a random number that
is predictable only within a certain range, specifically numbers one to six on
each die. Now what I need next for the model is a set of dependent events.
After scavenging around for a minute or two, I find a box of match sticks (the
strike-anywhere kind), and some bowls from the aluminum mess kit. I set the
bowls in a line along the length of the table and put the matches at one end.
And this gives me a model of a perfectly balanced system.
While I’m setting this up and figuring out how to operate the model, Dave
wanders over with a friend of his. They stand by the table and watch me roll
the die and move matches around.
"What are you doing?’’ asks Dave.
"Well, I’m sort of inventing a game,’’ I say.
"A game? Really?’’ says his friend. "Can we play it, Mr. Rogo?’’
Why not?
"Sure you can,’’ I say.
All of a sudden Dave is interested.
"Hey, can I play too?’’ he asks.
"Yeah, I guess I’ll let you in,’’ I tell him. "In fact, why don’t you round up a
couple more of the guys to help us do this.’’
While they go get the others, I figure out the details. The system I’ve set up is
intended to "process’’ matches. It does this by moving a quantity of match
sticks out of their box, and through each of the bowls in succession. The dice
determine how many matches can be moved from one bowl to the next. The
dice represent the capacity of each resource, each bowl; the set of bowls are
my dependent events, my stages of production. Each has exactly the same
capacity as the others, but its actual yield will fluctuate somewhat.
In order to keep those fluctuations minimal, however, I decide to use only
one of the dice. This allows the fluctuations to range from one to six. So from
the first bowl, I can move to the next bowls in line any quantity of matches
ranging from a minimum of one to a maximum of six.
Throughput in this system is the speed at which matches come out of the last
bowl. Inventory consists of the total number of matches in all of the bowls at
any time. And I’m going to assume that market demand is exactly equal to
the average number of matches that the system can process. Production
capacity of each resource and market demand are perfectly in balance. So that
means I now have a model of a perfectly balanced manufacturing plant.
Five of the boys decide to play. Besides Dave, there are Andy, Ben, Chuck,
and Evan. Each of them sits behind one of the bowls. I find some paper and a
pencil to record what happens. Then I explain what they’re supposed to do.
"The idea is to move as many matches as you can from your bowl to the bowl
on your right. When it’s your turn, you roll the die, and the number that
comes up is the number of matches you can move. Got it?’’
They all nod. "But you can only move as many matches as you’ve got in your
bowl. So if you roll a five and you only have two matches in your bowl, then
you can only move two matches. And if it comes to your turn and you don’t
have any matches, then naturally you can’t move any.’’
They nod again.
"How many matches do you think we can move through the line each time
we go through the cycle?’’ I ask them.
Perplexity descends over their faces.
"Well, if you’re able to move a maximum of six and a minimum of one when
it’s your turn, what’s the average number you ought to be moving?’’ I ask
them.
"Three,’’ says Andy.
"No, it won’t be three,’’ I tell them. "The mid-point between one and six isn’t
three.’’
I draw some numbers on my paper.
"Here, look,’’ I say, and I show them this:
123456
And I explain that 3.5 is really the average of those six numbers.
"So how many matches do you think each of you should have moved on the
average after we’ve gone through the cycle a number of times?’’ I ask.
"Three and a half per turn,’’ says Andy.
"And after ten cycles?’’
"Thirty-five,’’ says Chuck.
"And after twenty cycles?’’
"Seventy,’’ says Ben.
"Okay, let’s see if we can do it,’’ I say.
Then I hear a long sigh from the end of the table. Evan looks at me.
"Would you mind if I don’t play this game, Mr. Rogo?’’ he asks.
"How come?’’
"Cause I think it’s going to be kind of boring,’’ he says.
"Yeah,’’ says Chuck. "Just moving matches around. Like who cares, you
know?’’
"I think I’d rather go tie some knots,’’ says Evan.
"Tell you what,’’ I say. "Just to make it more interesting, we’ll have a reward.
Let’s say that everybody has a quota of 3.5 matches per turn. Anybody who
does better than that, who averages more than 3.5 matches, doesn’t have to
wash any dishes tonight. But anybody who averages less than 3.5 per turn,
has to do extra dishes after dinner.’’
"Yeah, all right!’’ says Evan.
"You got it!’’ says Dave.
They’re all excited now. They’re practicing rolling the die. Meanwhile, I set
up a grid on a sheet of paper. What I plan to do is record the amount that each
of them deviates from the average. They all start at zero. If the roll of the die
is a 4, 5, or 6 then I’ll record—respectively—a gain of .5, 1.5, or 2.5. And if
the roll is a 1, 2, or 3 then I’ll record a loss of −2.5, −1.5, or −.5 respectively.
The deviations, of course, have to be cumulative; if someone is 2.5 above, for
example, his starting point on the next turn is 2.5, not zero. That’s the way it
would happen in the plant.
"Okay, everybody ready?’’ I ask.
"All set.’’
I give the die to Andy.
He rolls a two. So he takes two matches from the box and puts them in Ben’s
bowl. By rolling a two, Andy is down 1.5 from his quota of 3.5 and I note the
deviation on the chart.
Ben rolls next and the die comes up as a four.
"Hey, Andy,’’ he says. "I need a couple more matches.’’
"No, no, no, no,’’ I say. "The game does not work that way. You can only
pass the matches that are in your bowl.’’
"But I’ve only got two,’’ says Ben.
"Then you can only pass two.’’
"Oh,’’ says Ben.
And he passes his two matches to Chuck. I record a deviation of −1.5 for him
too.
Chuck rolls next. He gets a five. But, again, there are only two matches he
can move.
"Hey, this isn’t fair!’’ says Chuck.
"Sure it is,’’ I tell him. "The name of the game is to move matches. If both
Andy and Ben had rolled five’s, you’d have five matches to pass. But they
didn’t. So you don’t.’’ Chuck gives a dirty look to Andy.
"Next time, roll a bigger number,’’ Chuck says.
"Hey, what could I do!’’ says Andy.
"Don’t worry,’’ Ben says confidently. "We’ll catch up.’’
Chuck passes his measly two matches down to Dave, and I record a deviation
of −1.5 for Chuck as well. We watch as Dave rolls the die. His roll is only a
one. So he passes one match down to Evan. Then Evan also rolls a one. He
takes the one match out of his bowl and puts it on the end of the table. For
both Dave and Evan, I write a deviation of −2.5.
"Okay, let’s see if we can do better next time,’’ I say.
Andy shakes the die in his hand for what seems like an hour. Everyone is
yelling at him to roll. The die goes spinning onto the table. We all look. It’s a
six.
"All right!’’
"Way to go, Andy!’’
He takes six match sticks out of the box and hands them to Ben. I record a
gain of +2.5 for him, which puts his score at 1.0 on the grid.
Ben takes the die and he too rolls a six. More cheers. He passes all six
matches to Chuck. I record the same score for Ben as for Andy.
But Chuck rolls a three. So after he passes three matches to Dave, he still has
three left in his bowl. And I note a loss of −0.5 on the chart.
Now Dave rolls the die; it comes up as a six. But he only has four matches to
pass—the three that Chuck just passed to him and one from the last round. So
he passes four to Evan. I write down a gain of +0.5 for him.
Evan gets a three on the die. So the lone match on the end of the table is
joined by three more. Evan still has one left in his bowl. And I record a loss
of −0.5 for Evan.
At the end of two rounds, this is what the chart looks like.
We keep going. The die spins on the table and passes from hand to hand.
Matches come out of the box and move from bowl to bowl. Andy’s rolls are
—what else?—very average, no steady run of high or low numbers. He is
able to meet the quota and then some. At the other end of the table, it’s a
different story.
"Hey, let’s keep those matches coming.’’
"Yeah, we need more down here.’’
"Keep rolling sixes, Andy.’’
"It isn’t Andy, it’s Chuck. Look at him, he’s got five.’’ After four turns, I
have to add more numbers—negative numbers—to the bottom of the chart.
Not for Andy or for Ben or for Chuck, but for Dave and Evan. For them, it
looks like there is no bottom deep enough.
After five rounds, the chart looks like this:
"How am I doing, Mr. Rogo?’’ Evan asks me.
"Well, Evan... ever hear the story of the Titanic?’’ He looks depressed.
"You’ve got five rounds left,’’ I tell him. "Maybe you can pull through.’’
"Yeah, remember the law of averages,’’ says Chuck. "If I have to wash dishes
because you guys didn’t give me enough matches . . .’’ says Evan, letting
vague implications of threat hang in the air.
"I’m doing my job up here,’’ says Andy.
"Yeah, what’s wrong with you guys down there?’’ asks Ben.
"Hey, I just now got enough of them to pass,’’ says Dave. "I’ve hardly had
any before.’’
Indeed, some of the inventory which had been stuck in the first three bowls
had finally moved to Dave. But now it gets stuck in Dave’s bowl. The couple
of higher rolls he had in the first five rounds are averaging out. Now he’s
getting low rolls just when he has inventory to move.
"C’mon, Dave, gimme some matches,’’ says Evan.
Dave rolls a one.
"Aw, Dave! One match!’’
"Andy, you hear what we’re having for dinner tonight?’’ asks Ben.
"I think it’s spaghetti,’’ says Andy.
"Ah, man, that’ll be a mess to clean up.’’
"Yeah, glad I won’t have to do it,’’ says Andy.
"You just wait,’’ says Evan. "You just wait ’til Dave gets some good
numbers for a change.’’
But it doesn’t get any better.
"How are we doing now, Mr. Rogo?’’ asks Evan.
"I think there’s a Brillo pad with your name on it.’’
"All right! No dishes tonight!’’ shouts Andy.
After ten rounds, this is how the chart looks . . .
I look at the chart. I still can hardly believe it. It was a balanced system. And
yet throughput went down. Inventory went up. And operational expense? If
there had been carrying costs on the matches, operational expense would
have gone up too.
What if this had been a real plant—with real customers? How many units
did we manage to ship? We expected to ship thirty-five. But what was our
actual throughput? It was only twenty. About half of what we needed. And it
was nowhere near the maximum potential of each station. If this had been an
actual plant, half of our orders—or more—would have been late. We’d never
be able to promise specific delivery dates. And if we did, our credibility with
customers would drop through the floor.
# Dave’s inventory for turns 8,9, and 10 is in double digits, respectively
rising to 11 matches, 14 matches, and 17 matches.
All of that sounds familiar, doesn’t it?
"Hey, we can’t stop now!’’ Evan is clamoring.
"Yea, let’s keep playing,’’ says Dave.
"Okay,’’ says Andy. "What do you want to bet this time? I’ll take you on.’’
"Let’s play for who cooks dinner,’’ says Ben.
"Great,’’ says Dave.
"You’re on,’’ says Evan.
They roll the die for another twenty rounds, but I run out of paper at the
bottom of the page while tracking Dave and Evan. What was I expecting? My
initial chart ranged from +6 to −6. I guess I was expecting some fairly regular
highs and lows, a normal sine curve. But I didn’t get that. Instead, the chart
looks like I’m tracing a cross-section of the Grand Canyon. Inventory moves
through the system not in manageable flow, but in waves. The mound of
matches in Dave’s bowl passes to Evan’s and onto the table finally—only to
be replaced by another accumulating wave. And the system gets further and
further behind schedule.
"Want to play again?’’ asks Andy.
"Yeah, only this time I get your seat,’’ says Evan. "No way!’’ says Andy.
Chuck is in the middle shaking his head, already resigned to defeat. Anyway,
it’s time to head on up the trail again. "Some game that turned out to be,’’
says Evan. "Right, some game,’’ I mumble.
15
For a while, I watch the line ahead of me. As usual, the gaps are
widening. I shake my head. If I can’t even deal with this in a simple hike,
how am I going to deal with it in the plant?
What went wrong back there? Why didn’t the balanced model work? For
about an hour or so, I keep thinking about what happened. Twice I have to
stop the troop to let us catch up. Sometime after the second stop, I’ve fairly
well sorted out what happened.
There was no reserve. When the kids downstream in the balanced model
got behind, they had no extra capacity to make up for the loss. And as the
negative deviations accumulated, they got deeper and deeper in the hole.
Then a long-lost memory from way back in some math class in school
comes to mind. It has to do with something called a covariance, the impact of
one variable upon others in the same group. A mathematical principle says
that in a linear dependency of two or more variables, the fluctuations of the
variables down the line will fluctuate around the maximum deviation
established by any preceding variables. That explains what happened in the
balanced model.
Fine, but what do I do about it?
On the trail, when I see how far behind we are, I can tell everyone to hurry
up. Or I can tell Ron to slow down or stop. And we close ranks. Inside a
plant, when the departments get behind and work-in-process inventory starts
building up, people are shifted around, they’re put on overtime, managers
start to crack the whip, product moves out the door, and inventories slowly go
down again. Yeah, that’s it: we run to catch up. (We always run, never stop;
the other option, having some workers idle, is taboo.) So why can’t we catch
up at my plant? It feels like we’re always running. We’re running so hard
we’re out of breath.
I look up the trail. Not only are the gaps still occurring, but they’re expanding
faster than ever! Then I notice something weird. Nobody in the column is
stuck on the heels of anybody else. Except me. I’m stuck behind Herbie.
Herbie? What’s he doing back here?
I lean to the side so I can see the line better. Ron is no longer leading the
troop; he’s a third of the way back now. And Davey is ahead of him. I don’t
know who’s leading. I can’t see that far. Well, son of a gun. The little
bastards changed their marching order on me.
"Herbie, how come you’re all the way back here?’’ I ask.
"Oh, hi, Mr. Rogo,’’ says Herbie as he turns around. "I just thought I’d stay
back here with you. This way I won’t hold anybody up.’’
He’s walking backwards as he says this.
"Hu-huh, well, that’s thoughtful of you. Watch out!’’
Herbie trips on a tree root and goes flying onto his backside. I help him up.
"Are you okay?’’ I ask.
"Yeah, but I guess I’d better walk forwards, huh?’’ he says. "Kind of hard to
talk that way though.’’
"That’s okay, Herbie,’’ I tell him as we start walking again. "You just enjoy
the hike. I’ve got lots to think about.’’
And that’s no lie. Because I think Herbie may have just put me onto
something. My guess is that Herbie, unless he’s trying very hard, as he was
before lunch, is the slowest one in the troop. I mean, he seems like a good kid
and everything. He’s clearly very conscientious—but he’s slower than all the
others. (Somebody’s got to be, right?) So when Herbie is walking at what I’ll
loosely call his "optimal’’ pace—a pace that’s comfortable to him —he’s
going to be moving slower than anybody who happens to be behind him.
Like me.
At the moment, Herbie isn’t limiting the progress of anyone except me. In
fact, all the boys have arranged themselves (deliberately or accidentally, I’m
not sure which) in an order that allows every one of them to walk without
restriction. As I look up the line, I can’t see anybody who is being held back
by anybody else. The order in which they’ve put themselves has placed the
fastest kid at the front of the line, and the slowest at the back of the line. In
effect, each of them, like Herbie, has found an optimal pace for himself. If
this were my plant, it would be as if there were a never-ending supply of
work—no idle time.
But look at what’s happening: the length of the line is spreading farther and
faster than ever before. The gaps between the boys are widening. The closer
to the front of the line, the wider the gaps become and the faster they expand.
You can look at it this way, too: Herbie is advancing at his own speed, which
happens to be slower than my potential speed. But because of dependency,
my
maximum speed is the rate at which Herbie is walking. My rate is
throughput. Herbie’s rate governs mine. So Herbie really is determining the
maximum throughput.
My head feels as though it’s going to take off.
Because, see, it really doesn’t matter how fast any
one
of us can go, or does
go. Somebody up there, whoever is leading right now, is walking faster than
average, say, three miles per hour. So what! Is his speed helping the troop
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