Fusional languages.
Morphemes in fusional languages are not readily distinguishable from the root or
among themselves. Several grammatical bits of meaning may be fused into one affix.
Morphemes may also be expressed by internal phonological changes in the root (i.e.
morphophonology), such as consonant gradation and vowel gradation, or by
suprasegmental features such as stress or tone, which are of course inseparable from
the root.
Most Indo-European languages are fusional to a varying degree. A remarkably high
degree of fusionality is also found in certain Sami languages such as Skolt Sami.
Polysynthetic languages.
In 1836, Wilhelm von Humboldt proposed a third category for classifying
languages, a category that he labeled "polysynthetic". (The term "polysynthesis" was
first used in linguistics by Peter Stephen DuPonceau who borrowed it from
chemistry.) These languages have a high morpheme-to-word ratio, a highly regular
morphology, and a tendency for verb forms to include morphemes that refer to several
arguments besides the subject ("polypersonalism"). Another feature of polysynthetic
languages is commonly
expressed as "the ability to form words that are equivalent to whole sentences in other
languages". Of course, this is rather useless as a defining feature, since it is
tautological ("other languages" can only be defined by opposition to polysynthetic
ones and vice versa).
Many Amerindian languages are polysynthetic. Inuktitut is one example, for
instance, the word-phrase: "tavvakiqutiqarpiit" roughly translates to "Do you have any
tobacco for sale?".
Note that no clear division exists between synthetic languages and polysynthetic
languages; the place of one language largely depends on its relation to other languages
displaying similar characteristics on the same scale.
Morphological typology in reality
Each of the types above is idealizations; they do not exist in a pure state in reality.
Although they generally fit best into one category, "all" languages are mixed types.
English is synthetic, but it is more analytic than Spanish and much more analytic than
Latin. Chinese is the usual model of analytic languages, but it does have some bound
morphemes. Japanese is highly synthetic (agglutinative) in its verbs, but clearly
analytic in its nouns. For these reasons, the scale above is continuous and relative, not
absolute. It is difficult to classify a language as absolutely analytic or synthetic, as a
language could be described as more synthetic than Chinese, but less synthetic than
Korean.
Morphology is the identification, analysis, and description of the structure of
words (words as units in the lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology). While words
are generally accepted as being (with clitics) the smallest units of syntax, it is clear that
in most (if not all) languages, words can be related to other words by rules. For
example, English speakers recognize that the words dog, dogs, and dogcatcher are
closely related. English speakers recognize these relations from their tacit knowledge
of the rules of word formation in English. They infer intuitively that dog is to dogs
as cat is to cats; similarly, thedog is to dogcatcher as thedish is to
thedishwasher. The rules understood by the speaker reflect specific patterns (or
regularities) in the way words are formed from smaller units and how those smaller
units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that
studies patterns of word formation within and across languages and attempts to
formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.
In linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. In
other words, it is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. A morpheme is not
identical to a word, and the principal difference between the two is that a morpheme
may or may not stand alone, whereas a word, by definition, is freestanding. When it
stands by itself, it is considered a root because it has a meaning of its own (e.g. the
morpheme cat) and when it depends on another morpheme to express an idea, it is
an affix because it has a grammatical function (e.g. the –s in cats to indicate that it is
plural). Every word comprises one or more morphemes.
General classification of the morpheme according to the role in the word is
similar in compared languages. They can be classified as free and bound morphemes.
While in Uzbek and Russian, they are called root and affixed morphemes.
Free morphemes can function independently as words (e.g. town, dog) and can
appear with other lexemes (e.g. town hall, doghouse).
Bound morphemes appear only as parts of words, always in conjunction with a
root and sometimes with other bound morphemes. For example, un- appears only
accompanied by other morphemes to form a word. Most bound morphemes in English
are affixes, particularly prefixes and suffixes. Examples of suffixes are -tion, -ation,
-ible, -ing, etc. Bound morphemes that are not affixes are called cranberry
morphemes.
Bound morphemes in the compared languages can be compared as follows:
Bound morpheme
English
Russian
Uzbek
Derived
Inflection
Lexical
Inflectional
Prefix
Affixed
Suffix
Affixoid
Postfix
Interfix
According to the function of morphemes, they are subdivided into lexeme
forming and form forming morphemes in Russian and Uzbek. The main function of
lexeme forming morpheme is to form new lexeme from
existing one (
бодр-ость, бодр-о; ishchi-, ishla-, ishchan).
Form
forming morphemes serve for forming forms of the same word without
changing its lexical meaning (
бодр-ый – бодр-ая – бодр-ое; ishchilar,
ishchini).
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