associated with a greater risk of hallux valgus. However, age is a
poor predictor of hallux valgus angle
87
. Although the peak onset
is from thirty to sixty years of age, it is more likely that the
initial changes occur during adolescence
43,88
or even earlier for
juvenile hallux valgus.
Metatarsus Primus Varus
The association between metatarsus primus varus and hallux
valgus is well known
43,89-93
, but it is not clear whether it is a
cause or an effect
94
. Humbert et al.
95
argued that metatarsus
primus varus comes first, stating that, as the abductor hallucis
tendon subluxates inferiorly, it becomes dysfunctional, re-
sulting in hallux valgus. Metatarsus primus varus is important
in juvenile hallux valgus
92
and has been reported to be found
in up to 75% of such patients (forty-nine of sixty-five)
96,97
.
This rate is greater than the prevalence in patients with adult
hallux valgus (57% of 122 subjects)
49
and in the general popu-
lation (<1% of 635 subjects)
98
, but the appearance of meta-
tarsus primus varus lags behind the development of the hallux
valgus
49,91
.
A weak association has been found between the magni-
tude of metatarsus primus varus and hallux valgus in women
49,99
,
but the evidence shows that it is related to the choice of footwear.
No direct association is found until the deformity becomes se-
vere and self-propagating
100,101
; by that stage, muscle compression
forces push the metatarsal head medially with a force equal to the
posterior shear force of the hallux on the ground times the hallux
valgus angle
102
.
Snijders et al. concluded that the metatarsus primus
varus was secondary to the toe deformity, on the basis of bio-
mechanical investigations
38
. This finding supports the obser-
vation that when hallux valgus is corrected, the metatarsus
primus varus can improve without an attempted correction of
the first metatarsal itself. This has been shown for basal oste-
otomy
49
, first metatarsal phalangeal joint fusion
103,104
, and even
Keller osteotomy
105
, suggesting that metatarsus primus varus is
a secondary phenomenon. Cronin et al. believed that the ad-
ductor hallucis was a deforming force that could be used after
fusion to adduct the entire ray without a basal first metatarsal
osteotomy
103
.
It appears that some people have an innate propensity
toward metatarsus primus varus and are at risk of juvenile hallux
valgus. If they wear high-heeled or small toe-box footwear, they
have an increased risk of developing adult hallux valgus. In se-
vere hallux valgus, a self-propagating cycle of worsening hallux
valgus and metatarsus primus varus can develop.
Metatarsal Anatomy
Metatarsal dimension: Metatarsal formula refers to the rela-
tive lengths of the metatarsals. The normal order in terms of
decreasing length is second, first, third, fourth, and then
fifth, but the first and third are commonly equal in length.
Morton
20
described the short first metatarsal of Morton foot
that he believed led to pronation and hypermobility of the
first ray and therefore hallux valgus. There is no clinical
evidence for this relationship, and more reliable measure-
ment techniques have found the true association to be as low
as 4%
49,106-108
.
Mancuso et al. found that 80% of 110 patients with
hallux valgus had a so-called zero-plus first metatarsal (i.e., it
was equal to or greater in length than the second metatarsal),
whereas 80% of 100 control subjects had shorter first meta-
tarsals
109
. According to Root et al., the long first metatarsal acts
as a ‘‘functional metatarsus primus elevatus’’
27
as it cannot
plantar flex below the transverse plane. This additional length
inhibits first metatarsophalangeal joint dorsiflexion and can
cause subluxation
110
.
A long first metatarsal creates a so-called buckle point
111,112
,
resulting in a hallux valgus with a high intermetatarsal angle,
and there is a strong association between protrusion distance
and intermetatarsal angle
108
. On this basis, Mancuso et al. ad-
vocated that the definition of so-called normal metatarsal
protrusion should be reduced to –2 to 0 mm from the accepted
standard of –2 to 12 mm
109
. It is important to remember that
pronation of the foot causes metatarsal dorsiflexion, making it
appear longer than it actually is
113
. However, the new definition
does not necessarily refute the theories regarding the long first
metatarsal, as the function of the foot when weight-bearing is
the important factor.
Metatarsal articular morphology: Heden and Sorto
112
observed that a round first metatarsal head is common in hallux
valgus (occurring in 90% of 100 affected subjects compared with
20% of 210 control subjects). A round first metatarsal head
creates a more unstable articulation than other shapes and is
associated with a higher rate of recurrence of hallux valgus
114
.
The round-shaped head is unlikely to be due to remodeling as it
is not associated with any degenerative change
36
. The flattened,
1654
T
H E
J
O U R N A L O F
B
O N E
& J
O I N T
S
U R G E R Y
d
J B J S
.
O R G
V
O L U M E
9 3 - A
d
N
U M B E R
1 7
d
S
E P T E M B E R
7 , 2 0 1 1
T
H E
P
AT H O G E N E S I S O F
H
A L L U X
V
A L G U S
so-called square or chevron-shaped head is more stable
49,115
.
Phillips
116
noted that, as the vector of the extensor and flexor
tendons runs through the vertical axis of motion, the articulation
behaves somewhat like a hinge. However, the more rounded it is,
the closer the vertical axis lies to the surface. Thus, even small
displacements medially or laterally can produce greater angular
changes than in a flattened head
36,49,53,82,91,117,118
.
The biggest objection to this theory is that it is not clear
whether the described head shapes are truly discrete anatomical
entities, and magnetic resonance imaging studies support this
observation
115
. These appearances may be spurious, as apparent
shape varies with metatarsal pronation and inclination
67,114
.
Unfortunately, there is still no consistent or accurate method of
describing metatarsal head shape or of taking into account the
concept of traveling distance of the head
119
.
Measurement of the distal metatarsal articular angle is
notoriously unreliable
120
, and there is a very wide variation (–14°
to 130°) of normal. However, a congruent metatarsophalangeal
joint in hallux valgus requires an altered distal metatarsal artic-
ular angle, and the two are directly related
38
. This relationship is
strongest for juvenile hallux valgus
43
, suggesting a congenital
origin especially as degeneration of the joint is rare
121
. But there is
evidence of a 1° to 3° increase in the distal metatarsal articular
angle with every decade of life, suggesting that it may be ac-
quired
122
. It is interesting that the congruent metatarsophalan-
geal joint appears to be more stable and less likely to progress
87
.
There is no association with metatarsal length, adduction, mo-
bility, range of motion, or inheritance
49
.
The proximal metatarsal articulation shows individual
variation and an association between obliquity and hallux
valgus
123,124
. This association appears well established; however,
these studies are all based on radiographic appearances, and
apparent angulation varies considerably with foot posture
7,125
.
Intermetatarsal facets occur in approximately one-third of
humans
126
and are associated with metatarsus primus varus and
increased obliquity of the first tarsometatarsal joint
127
but not
with hallux valgus
49,122
.
Recent unpublished work presented at a British Ortho-
paedic Foot & Ankle Society meeting, held in Nottingham in
2010, indicated that the proximal articular morphology varies.
The authors found that an articular surface with a single facet
was associated with hallux valgus, and an articular surface with
three facets only occurred in subjects with normal feet. They
hypothesized that the increasing number of articular facets
evoked stability
128
.
Metatarsal bunion: The bunion is not an osteophyte
7
, new
bone formation
129
, or ossification of inflamed tissues. There is
actually no increase in the size of the medial eminence
49,130
. In-
stead, the metatarsal head is increasingly exposed by cartilage
loss because of the lack of contact from the phalanx
131
. The
sagittal groove, which is a thinning of the articular cartilage that
develops laterally on the metatarsal head, is thought to be caused
by pressure from the phalangeal margin
131
. It is an area of
minimal pressure (or fossa nudata)
132
, and robust histological
data have shown that it is due to a lack of stimulation rather than
erosion
116
. As the sagittal groove moves laterally with increasing
hallux valgus deformity, it is not considered an indication for
bunionectomy in severe hallux valgus
7
.
Metatarsal Biomechanics
Static stabilizers around the first metatarsophalangeal joint: No
musculotendinous structures attach to the metatarsal head.
The only structures on the medial side are the capsule, collat-
eral ligament, and medial sesamoid ligament. These structures
are the most important joint stabilizers, and their insufficiency
is essential for the development of deformity. Sectioning them
alone results in a valgus angulation of >20°
132
. These structures
are mechanically abnormal in hallux valgus, with altered or-
ganization of the type-I and type-III collagen, leaving the first
metatarsophalangeal joint vulnerable to continuous and cy-
clical distraction during gait
133
. The insufficiency of these
structures is more likely effect than cause unless it is part of a
generalized ligamentous laxity.
McBride
9
advocated transverse metatarsal ligament tran-
section for correction, but there is no radiographic evidence to
support the use of this procedure
86
. This finding is not surprising
as the deep transverse ligament joins the five plantar pads to-
gether and not the metatarsal heads
134
. Sectioning the transverse
ligament hardly changes the valgus deformity and does not alter
the relationship between the first and second metatarsals
135
.The
lateral sesamoid is held by the transverse ligament and the ad-
ductor hallucis via the conjoined tendon and does not move. It is
the medial sesamoid ligament that fails
6
.
Dynamic stabilizers around the first metatarsophalangeal
joint: The abductor hallucis abducts, plantar flexes, and inverts
the great toe, while the adductor hallucis adducts, plantar
flexes, and everts the toe, providing a balanced so-called plantar
rotator cuff. When these moment arms are altered, the im-
balance plays an important role in deformity progression.
Suggestions of a primary muscle imbalance based on histo-
logical and electromyographic studies
136,137
probably reflect changes
secondary to the deformity
9,138
.
Normal variations in the attachment of the abductor
hallucis have been described, but no association with hallux
valgus has been found
139
. The abductor hallucis also has a
secondary role as a medial arch support and, when the tendon
becomes dysfunctional in hallux valgus
7
, it may be responsible
for some of the tibialis posterior dysfunction
140
. There is no
evidence of shortening
7
or overactivity of the adductor tendon,
although botulinum toxin injection into the muscle has suc-
cessfully treated hallux valgus
141
.
Snijders et al.
38
and Sanders et al.
142,143
studied the role of
flexion forces in the etiology of hallux valgus. Downward pull
of the hallux onto the ground creates a force couple with a
valgus moment on the hallux and a varus moment on the first
metatarsal head, producing medial deviation and widening of
the foot. In the normal subjects studied, the foot narrowed. In
addition, the further the flexor hallucis longus is from the first
metatarsal head, the weaker the moment arm of the flexor and
the greater all three deformities become
144
. The moment arm of
the flexors moves from an inferior to a lateral direction as the
great toe pronates or moves into valgus
145
.
1655
T
H E
J
O U R N A L O F
B
O N E
& J
O I N T
S
U R G E R Y
d
J B J S
.
O R G
V
O L U M E
9 3 - A
d
N
U M B E R
1 7
d
S
E P T E M B E R
7 , 2 0 1 1
T
H E
P
AT H O G E N E S I S O F
H
A L L U X
V
A L G U S
Migration of the sesamoids over the crista is important in
deformity progression
146,147
. When the medial sesamoid liga-
ment is attenuated
15
and the loss of the restraint provided by the
crista
148
occurs, deterioration can be rapid. The twofold in-
crease in the prevalence of bipartite tibial sesamoids in feet with
hallux valgus
149
is unexplained
150
.
Metatarsal Kinematics
The first-ray hypermobility theory states that the plane of
motion of the first ray described by Hicks
151
is exaggerated
26
because of tarsometatarsal joint instability. There are no liga-
mentous structures binding the distal first and second meta-
tarsals so the first tarsometatarsal joint can be affected by a
number of factors, including pes planus, a long hallux, or a
functional equinus of the foot
152
. The elevation causes the pres-
sures under the first metatarsal head to reduce. However, the
pronation and varus moments cause a relative increase in the
load on the medial side of the great toe, resulting in a valgus
moment on the hallux
35
.
The reported increased recurrence of hallux valgus after
surgical correction when the first tarsometatarsal joint is not
fused
79
is disputed
153
. Furthermore, it has been shown that ray
realignment alone can stabilize sagittal motion without tarso-
metatarsal joint fusion
73,78,153-155
, probably because of a realignment
of the plantar fascia improving the windlass mechanism
156,157
.
This raises the question of whether the corollary is correct, i.e.,
is the instability due to a reduction in soft-tissue stability re-
sulting from the malalignment
158
or is the malalignment a re-
sult of reduction in soft-tissue stability?
Hypermobility is still not well understood
159
, and data on
the effect of first tarsometatarsal joint fusion are lacking. In-
terestingly, hypermobility usually refers to sagittal plane mo-
tion, but transverse plane motion (i.e., metatarsus primus
varus) may be in fact more important
160,161
.
Pes Planus
Much has been written
18,162
about the role of pes planus in the
etiology of hallux valgus
163
. The mechanism appears obvious,
i.e., pronation increases loading on the plantar medial border
of the hallux during heel rise, but there are several other
changes
116
.
1. Pes planus produces an elevation and thus a functional
lengthening of the first metatarsal
164
, which can limit first
metatarsal phalangeal joint movement.
2. The peroneus longus is less able to stabilize the first
ray
165
. If this insufficiency is prolonged, hypermobility of the
first ray can result
166
.
3. In the planovalgus foot, hindfoot and midfoot eversion
reduce the load on the first metatarsophalangeal joint, although
weight-bearing through the medial arch increases. This change
is due to the relative mobility of the first tarsometatarsal joint
compared with the second tarsometatarsal joint and the loss of
the pull of the peroneus longus
116
.
4. As the hindfoot everts, the foot becomes abducted to
the line of progression, increasing the abduction force in
dorsiflexion on heel rise.
5. There is early and excessive firing of the abductor and
adductor hallucis in the pronated foot
167,168
. Their line of pull
alters as the sesamoids rotate, resulting in an overall valgus
moment
169
.
Coughlin et al.
17
showed that, as the foot pronates, the
first ray also rotates on its longitudinal axis. The first metatar-
sophalangeal joint collaterals are somewhat loose, allowing up to
2 mm of translation in the transverse plane on dorsiflexion
30
,
which can result in a repetitive injury to the medial restraints.
With pronation comes axial rotation of the so-called plantar
rotator cuff
30
that further exacerbates the deformity
131
.
Despite the commonly held belief that pes planus plays an
important role in hallux valgus, there is cogent pedobarographic
and radiographic evidence to the contrary
49,73,170,171
, especially in
juvenile hallux valgus
43,172
. Coughlin and Jones
49
assessed several
different measures of pes planus in hallux valgus and found none
to be significant. A link was detected between the prevalence of
plantar gapping of the first tarsometatarsal joint and severity of
hallux valgus, but this may be effect rather than cause. No study
has looked at the prevalence of hallux valgus in pes planus. The
association is likely to be far from 100%, given the difference
between the relative prevalence of the two (i.e., a 20% rate of pes
planus
173
versus a 2% to 4% rate of hallux valgus
174
). It is important
to note that even studies implicating pes planus found rates close
to this background rate
105
. Mann and Coughlin
53
believed pes
planus to be only clinically relevant in patients with a background
of neuromuscular deficit.
Given the proposed mechanism by which pes planus causes
hallux valgus, correction of the hallux valgus in isolation should be
associated with a higher recurrence rate. However, this has not
been the case
43,53,77,172,175
, although only one study
53
looked at older
patients in whom the biomechanical abnormalities had a longer
time to produce an acquired deformity.
Eustace et al. showed that first metatarsal pronation is
associated with hallux valgus and increases as the intermetatarsal
angle increases, such that pronation and varus are intimately
related
176
. Furthermore, they showed that medial longitudinal
arch collapse is also associated with first metatarsal prona-
tion
176
(a medial arch of <20° is associated with a first metatarsal
pronation of >10°). They were unable to demonstrate which
comes first, but it is logical when one considers the forces
involved that arch collapse drives the pronation rather than vice
versa
177
.
At present, the most that can be said is that any individual
with pes planus and hallux valgus is at risk for a more rapid
progression because of the forces that encourage further
deformity
17
.
Functional Hallux Limitus
Structural hallux limitus is a limitation of dorsiflexion on
both weight-bearing (<12°) and non-weight-bearing (<50°).
It can predispose to hallux rigidus, which is not relevant to
this review. Functional hallux limitus, on the other hand,
describes limitation of motion on weight-bearing only. This
poorly understood condition was first described, as far as we
know, in 1972
178
, but there continues to be little information
1656
T
H E
J
O U R N A L O F
B
O N E
& J
O I N T
S
U R G E R Y
d
J B J S
.
O R G
V
O L U M E
9 3 - A
d
N
U M B E R
1 7
d
S
E P T E M B E R
7 , 2 0 1 1
T
H E
P
AT H O G E N E S I S O F Dostları ilə paylaş: |