Current Concepts Review
The Pathogenesis of Hallux Valgus
A.M. Perera, FRCS(Orth), Lyndon Mason, MRCS(Eng), and M.M. Stephens, FRCSI
Investigation performed at the University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom
ä
The first ray is an inherently unstable axial array that relies on a fine balance between its static (capsule, ligaments,
and plantar fascia) and dynamic stabilizers (peroneus longus and small muscles of the foot) to maintain its
alignment.
ä
In some feet, there is a genetic predisposition for a nonlinear osseous alignment or a laxity of the static stabilizers
that disrupts this muscle balance. Poor footwear plays an important role in accelerating the process, but occu-
pation and excessive walking and weight-bearing are unlikely to be notable factors.
ä
Many inherent or acquired biomechanical abnormalities are identified in feet with hallux valgus. However, these
associations are incomplete and nonlinear.
ä
In any patient, a number of factors have come together to cause the hallux valgus. Once this complex pathogenesis
is unraveled, a more scientific approach to hallux valgus management will be possible, thereby enabling treatment
(conservative or surgical) to be tailored to the individual.
In the nineteenth century, hallux valgus was thought to be due
to an enlargement of the metatarsophalangeal joint of the great
toe
1
. It was not until Carl Hueter (1838-1882), a German-born
surgeon, coined the term hallux abducto valgus
2
that the de-
formity was more correctly described as a lateral deviation of
the great toe at the metatarsophalangeal joint. A century of
debate has failed to settle the importance of intrinsic versus
extrinsic causes in the etiology of hallux valgus. In the 1950s,
Sim-Fook and Hodgson compared shoe-wearing and non-
shoe-wearing groups and showed a dramatic increase in the
prevalence of hallux valgus among the shoe-wearing group
3
.
Unfortunately, it did not explain the prevalence of hallux valgus
in the community of people who had never worn shoes, nor did
it account for the many individuals who wear high-fashion
footwear and never become affected. Clearly, the issue is more
complex than simply a problem of footwear. Although much
research has been done to define the multifactorial origin of
hallux valgus and the effect of those factors on surgical out-
comes, the quality and strength of this evidence have been
variable.
Pathoanatomy of Hallux Valgus
Development of Hallux Valgus (Figs. 1 through 4)
It is generally accepted
4,5
that hallux valgus occurs in steps,
frequently on a background of several predisposing factors
(Table I). These steps do not necessarily occur in series but may
transpire in parallel. These steps are as follows:
1. As the only medial supporting structures of the first
metatarsophalangeal joint are the medial sesamoid and medial
collateral ligaments, their failure is the ‘‘early and essential
lesion.’’
6
2. The metatarsal head can then drift medially, slipping
off the sesamoid apparatus. An oblique or an unstable tarso-
metatarsal joint may encourage this movement.
Disclosure: None of the authors received payments or services, either directly or indirectly (i.e., via his or her institution), from a third party in support of
any aspect of this work. One or more of the authors, or his or her institution, has had a financial relationship, in the thirty-six months prior to submission of
this work, with an entity in the biomedical arena that could be perceived to influence or have the potential to influence what is written in this work. No
author has had any other relationships, or has engaged in any other activities, that could be perceived to influence or have the potential to influence what
is written in this work. The complete Disclosures of Potential Conflicts of Interest submitted by authors are always provided with the online version of the
article.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.H.01630
3. The proximal phalanx moves into a valgus position as
it is tethered at its base to the sesamoids, the deep transverse
ligament (via the plantar plate), and the adductor hallucis
tendon.
4. The metatarsal head sits on the medial sesamoid and
can erode the cartilage and the crista. The lateral sesamoid can
appear to sit in the intermetatarsal space although it does not
actually move.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 1 Illustration of the medial view of the hallux, showing the medial structures whose failure is essential for hallux valgus deformity to occur. Fig. 2
Illustration of the metatarsal head of the hallux in the anteroposterior plane, showing the medial shift of the metatarsal head (step 2 in the development of
hallux valgus), with the valgus displacement of the proximal phalanx due to its attachment to the sesamoids, the deep transverse ligament (via the plantar
plate), and the adductor hallucis tendon (step 3). The extensor hallucis longus bowstrings laterally (step 6).
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 3 Illustration showing the medial shift of the metatarsal head in the axial plane (step 2 in the development of hallux valgus) and the pronation of the
metatarsal head that results from the muscle forces acting on it (step 7). The figure also illustrates the position of the sesamoids, abductor hallucis (AbH),
adductor hallucis (AdH), flexor hallucis longus (FHL), and extensor hallucis longus (EHL). Fig. 4 Illustration of the deformity of hallux valgus in the axial plane.
The metatarsal is pronated and shifted medially, resulting in the lateral shift of the abductor hallucis (AbH), adductor hallucis (AdH), flexor hallucis longus
(FHL), and extensor hallucis longus (EHL) (steps 6 and 8 in the development of hallux valgus). The bursa overlying the medial eminence thickens because of
the pressure effect of footwear on a prominent medial eminence (step 5). Because of the pressure of the medial sesamoid on the crista, the cartilage is
eroded and the crista flattened (step 4).
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5. The bursa overlying the medial eminence can thicken
because of the pressure effect of footwear on a prominent
medial eminence.
6. The extensor and flexor hallucis longus tendons appear
to bowstring laterally
7
, increasing the valgus displacement and
occasionally acting as dorsiflexors of the proximal phalanx.
7. As the metatarsal head drops off the sesamoid
apparatus, it pronates because of the muscle forces acting
across it.
8. Normally, the abductor hallucis strongly resists valgus
of the proximal phalanx, but it becomes dysfunctional as its
medial and plantar attachment rotates inferiorly
8
. The adduc-
tor hallucis is attached on the plantar surface laterally so it
tends to pull the phalanx into pronation as well as tethering
its base.
9. The weaker dorsal metatarsophalangeal joint capsule is
not reinforced by any tendons and rotates medially with
pronation and provides poor stability
9
.
10. The metatarsal head elevation with medial motion
can transfer plantar pressure laterally. The relatively mobile
fifth metatarsal may also splay.
First Ray Biomechanics
The first ray plays a key role in maintaining the structure of the
medial arch
9
, and as the main load-bearing structure
10
, it is
subject to substantial forces during gait. Failure anywhere along
the first ray, from the distal phalanx to the talonavicular joint,
can result in hallux valgus. It is therefore worth considering the
first ray biomechanics as a common factor to many of the key
theories. There are no tendon attachments on the metatarsal
head, and maintenance of this inherently unstable axial array
requires (1) a congruent and stable metatarsophalangeal joint
during push-off, (2) a distal metatarsal articulation angle that
encourages stability, (3) balanced static and dynamic restraints,
and (4) a stable tarsometatarsal joint
11
.
Sesamoids
The functions of the sesamoid bones are, first, to absorb
weight-bearing forces and enhance the load-bearing capacity
of the first ray. The sesamoids increase the moment arm of
the flexor hallucis brevis, which powers plantar flexion of the
hallux, and, finally, they function to elevate the first metatarsal
head, which dissipates the forces on the metatarsal head
12-16
.
The first metatarsal head is elevated on the sesamoids during
stance, but the sesamoids move during hallux dorsiflexion,
coming to lie anterior to the metatarsal head rather than in-
ferior. The sesamoid sling thus facilitates the first metatarsal
plantar flexion that is essential for hallux dorsiflexion.
The sesamoids can appear to subluxate with first meta-
tarsal pronation alone
17,18
, but true subluxation requires a
number of events to occur first. The joint reaction force of
the metatarsosesamoid joint is normally sufficient to prevent
subluxation
19
. Thus, the metatarsosesamoid joint must become
unloaded either by elevation of the first metatarsal head or by
the transfer of plantar pressure laterally. Finally, the soft-tissue
restraints and the cristae need to fail.
First Ray Motion
Morton believed that dorsal hypermobility of the first meta-
tarsal segment was responsible for the widest array of foot
deformity
20
. However, several studies have questioned whether
motion at the tarsometatarsal joint even exists
21-24
. The studies
that described motion of the first tarsometatarsal joint had
no consensus with regard to either the axis of movement or
the magnitude. In so-called normal feet, the small amount of
movement permitted at the first tarsometatarsal joint is am-
plified by the long metatarsal shaft, resulting in an average
dorsoplantar motion of 6 mm
25
. However, the mean range of
motion of the entire first ray in the foot with hallux valgus is
significantly greater in both the sagittal and frontal planes.
First Metatarsophalangeal Joint Motion
The first metatarsophalangeal joint is a partial ball-and-socket
joint rather than a simple hinge. When the hallux is held stable
(as in push-off), the kinematic coupling of the first ray and the
ankle joint motion results in a frontal plane rotation, pronating
the great toe and causing a medial transverse plane motion. These
motions both increase the loading on the medial aspect of the
toe
26
, creating a valgus moment at the metatarsophalangeal
joint.
With the foot flat on the ground and loaded evenly (i.e.,
midstance), the dorsiflexion of the metatarsophalangeal joint is
limited to approximately 20° as further motion requires plantar
flexion of the first metatarsal
27
. The phalanx and metatarsal are
coupled such that 1° of phalangeal dorsiflexion requires 3° of
metatarsal plantar flexion
28
. The spiral-shaped nature of the
metatarsal head
29
forces a translational sliding motion as the
proximal phalanx rotates
30,31
. Thus, the locus of the axis of
rotation has to move in an arc
32
that necessitates metatarsal
motion proximally and plantarward in order to avoid com-
pression at the metatarsophalangeal joint. Prevention of this
plantar flexion hinders dorsiflexion of the first metatarsopha-
langeal joint even when non-weight-bearing
33
. Plantar flexion
of the first ray also maintains ground contact during heel rise
when the obliquity of the metatarsophalangeal break, which is
TABLE I Potential Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors
Extrinsic
Intrinsic
High-heeled narrow shoes
Genetics
Excessive weight-bearing
Ligamentous laxity
Metatarsus primus varus
Pes planus
Functional hallux limitus
Sexual dimorphism
Age
Metatarsal morphology
First-ray hypermobility
Tight Achilles tendon
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the axis of the four lateral metatarsophalangeal joints, is en-
hanced during late stance, causing lower-extremity external
rotation and inversion of the subtalar joint
34
.
Normal gait uses up to 65° of first metatarsophalangeal
dorsiflexion, and first ray elevation substantially compromises
this range of motion
35
. Furthermore, the normal hallux has a
tendency toward valgus (and any pronation further encourages
this tendency). This combination means that, when dorsiflexion
is restricted, the toe is forced to ‘‘escape’’ laterally in the direction
of least resistance. As the transverse sphericity of the first meta-
tarsal head
29
permits multiplanar motion
36
, the collaterals,
sesamoids, and the so-called rein effect of the first metatarso-
phalangeal joint rotator cuff are all required for stability.
Etiology of Hallux Valgus
The different factors can be divided into extrinsic and intrinsic
risks (Table I).
Extrinsic Factors
Footwear
Even prior to the understanding of hallux valgus pathology, the
use of footwear has been implicated as an etiology
1,37,38
. In 1909,
Porter
39
advised against performing corrective surgery on pa-
tients unwilling to wear appropriate footwear because of a
greater risk of recurrence of the deformity. There is a low
prevalence of hallux valgus in unshod populations
40,41
, and the
prevalence increases with changes in shoe fashion
42
. However,
the association is not complete (Table II), and footwear is not at
all important in juvenile hallux valgus
43
.
High heels are commonly blamed for hallux valgus, and
there is a direct association between increased first metatarsal
loading and a valgus moment
44
. This forefoot loading is exac-
erbated by the forefoot sliding forward into the toe-box, pro-
nating as it does so. A third of the population naturally favors
loading the lateral part of the forefoot and is at greatest risk of
this deformity. However, this forefoot loading is probably more
important in deformity progression than initiation
45
. There is
some limited evidence that altering the position of the heel
could counteract this tendency
28
.
The prevalence of hallux valgus in women who wear shoes
with a narrow toe-box or a high heel is certainly not 100%. This
may be due, in part, to the buttressing effect of the second toe, in
the association between hallux valgus and a hammer toe of the
second digit
46
or between the length of the great toe and risk of
hallux valgus
47
. So even in women, footwear is probably more
important in progression than causation. It is intuitive to pre-
sume that this risk is greater in those with a wider foot.
Excessive Loading
Hallux valgus develops slowly, suggesting a process of repetitive
trauma; however, despite a perception that occupation
48
or
excessive walking and weight-bearing
49
is important, there is no
proven link
50
. The only exception is a weak association with
ballet dancing
51,52
. Mann and Coughlin
53
reviewed the literature
on cumulative industrial trauma and dismissed any occupa-
tional link.
No clear link has been established between hallux valgus
and obesity
54
and other factors that affect loading such as foot
progression angle
55
or foot dominance
56
. There are differences
in metatarsal loading in hallux valgus, but the relevance is
unknown
56
.
Intrinsic Factors
Genetic Factors
A genetic predisposition has long been suspected
57
. Among
the inheritable factors that may be relevant are metatarsal
formula, arch height, and hypermobility
58,59
. The best evi-
dence showed that 90% of 350 white patients had at least one
affected relative
60
, with the most common pattern of inher-
itance being autosomal dominant with incomplete penetrance.
The role of genetics in juvenile
43
and young adult
49
hallux valgus
is much more established, with maternal transmission found in
94% (twenty-nine) of thirty-one patients with a family history.
There is weak evidence of a racial difference. The prevalence of
hallux valgus in whites has been reported to be two times greater
than that in black Africans
40,61
.
Sexual Dimorphism
The true sex ratio is unknown, although the male-to-female
ratio of 1:15
60,62,63
among those who have corrective surgery is
well established. The higher prevalence among women may be
due to footwear that is either poor (up to 90% of shoes in a
survey of 365 women were too small
64
) or less forgiving, re-
sulting in earlier and more frequent presentation. Nevertheless,
the prevalence is still greater in women, but there is no quality
evidence to support the finding
65
. Even less is known of the
prevalence between the sexes with regard to juvenile hallux
valgus.
There are fundamental differences in osseous anatomy
66
;
for instance, the metatarsal head articular surface in female
patients is more rounded and smaller, providing a less stable
joint
67
. Women also tend to have a more adducted first meta-
tarsal
68
, which in turn may be due to differences in the tarso-
metatarsal articulation
69
. Other differences include metatarsal
dimension and distal and proximal articulation shape and
TABLE II Prevalence of Deformity in Shod and Unshod Feet*
Deformity
Shod
Feet (%)
Unshod
Feet (%)
Hallux valgus
33
2
Flatfoot
11
5
Atavistic forefoot
7
17
Metatarsus elevatus
7
39
Metatarsus primus varus
6
25
Hypermobility of the metatarsus
1
13
*The data are from the study by Sim-Fook and Hodgson
3
. There
were 118 subjects in the group that wore shoes and 107 subjects in
the group that did not wear shoes.
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angle
68,70
. Differences in foot pressures have been noted, but the
significance of these findings is unknown
71
.
Ligamentous laxity
72
and first ray hypermobility
73
are
more common in women, although several major series on the
outcomes of hallux valgus surgery have failed to provide male-
to-female ratios
9,74-77
. No link has been made with pregnancy.
Systemic Conditions
Ligamentous Laxity
Mild ligamentous laxity is common in women with hallux
valgus
78
and has been reported in 70% of twenty patients with
juvenile hallux valgus
74
. Therefore, in conditions with generalized
ligamentous laxity
79
, such as Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos
syndrome
10
, and rheumatoid arthritis
80
, hallux valgus is more
common and more difficult to treat. It is interesting, although
counterintuitive, that the only study assessing laxity with
use of the Beighton scoring system
81
failed to find any as-
sociation between generalized ligamentous laxity and hal-
lux valgus
78
. Despite the fact that patients with laxity have a
major risk for recurrence, little work has been done on this
condition
82-84
.
Age
A biomechanical study in elderly patients
85,86
showed that
changes in posture, joint kinematics, and plantar pressure are
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