H
A L L U X
V
A L G U S
on this subject in the orthopaedic literature to either confirm
or refute it. In essence, functional hallux limitus refers to the
restriction of hallux dorsiflexion that occurs when the first ray
is dorsiflexed. It can be observed to an extent even in normal
feet and is due to the axis of rotation of the joint shifting plan-
tarward as the first ray elevates
179
. Functional hallux limitus is
purported to predispose to either hallux rigidus or hallux val-
gus
180
, depending on the coexisting biomechanics of the foot.
In hallux valgus, structural hallux limitus appears to be
exaggerated and the passive range of motion at the meta-
tarsophalangeal joint commonly reduces on weight-bearing
49
.
The proposed link is that certain foot types (i.e., an everted
hindfoot, a flexible forefoot valgus, or a plantar-flexed first
ray)
181
increase ground reaction force under the first metatarsal
head (Fig. 5). The predisposed foot types also increase the
ground reaction force earlier and for longer in the gait cycle
182
.
Feet with good midtarsal movement can accommodate this
first ray elevation. As the first ray dorsiflexes, the axis of the first
metatarsophalangeal joint inverts, so the greater the elevation
the greater the inversion. As the metatarsophalangeal joint
dorsiflexion is limited at heel rise, the hallux is forced in the
direction of least resistance. So feet with a great deal of mobility
in the first ray are at risk of hallux valgus. This theory seems to
fit in well with some of the other theories of the pathogenesis
of hallux valgus, and there is evidence that a dorsiflexed first
metatarsal is important
180
. This biomechanical theory still is
not proven. The actual prevalence of functional hallux limitus
and subsequent hallux valgus is low.
Windlass Model
The windlass model explains these findings more simply
183
. An
increase in hallux valgus deformity on weight-bearing
184
is due
to tightening of the plantar fascia and the pronation effect of
weight-bearing
157
. When this motion is excessive, the plantar
aponeurosis is further tightened
157
. On heel rise, the first
metatarsophalangeal joint has to dorsiflex to the same extent,
activating the windlass mechanism. This tension can prevent
the hallux from dorsiflexing. When the heel is lifted off the
ground, the metatarsophalangeal joint should dorsiflex to an
equal degree, but a tight plantar fascia causes a plantar flexion
moment on the hallux. This plantar flexion moment opposes
the dorsiflexion moment of the ground reaction forces on the
hallux, causing it to veer along the path of least resistance. If the
dorsiflexion forces are transmitted by a relatively rigid first
metatarsophalangeal joint through to the first metatarsal, then
this could explain the hypermobility often seen in the first
ray
156
.
Tight Achilles Tendon
Mann and Coughlin
53
and Hansen
185
postulated that a tight
Achilles tendon can predispose to hallux valgus. This is be-
cause of early and increased forefoot loading
186
. The natural
tendency is to externally rotate the foot, rolling over the
medial border rather than going forward through the third
rocker (i.e., toe off, which is dorsiflexion at the metatar-
sophalangeal joint with concentric contraction of the gastroc-
nemius), increasing the valgus force. The evidence comes
mainly from work done with diabetic ulcers
187
, but there is
evidence of an association with hallux valgus if there is <5° of
dorsiflexion at the ankle
188
. Clinical studies of hallux valgus
have echoed this finding, but only if Achilles tendon tightness is
defined as being <10° of ankle dorsiflexion
49
. Others have
found no association
35,189
, and there is no evidence that failure
to address Achilles tendon tightness results in a higher recur-
rence of hallux valgus
107
.
Overview
Hallux valgus is a complex condition with a range of defor-
mities varying in severity, suggesting that several factors are
responsible. Inheritance and sex are important, but other
Fig. 5
Proposed mechanism of hallux valgus development as a consequence of functional hallux limitus. MT
= metatarsal and MTP = metatarsophalangeal.
1657
T
H E
J
O U R N A L O F
B
O N E
& J
O I N T
S
U R G E R Y
d
J B J S
.
O R G
V
O L U M E
9 3 - A
d
N
U M B E R
1 7
d
S
E P T E M B E R
7 , 2 0 1 1
T
H E
P
AT H O G E N E S I S O F
H
A L L U X
V
A L G U S
anatomical and biomechanical factors, such as anatomical
metatarsal variants, including a long first metatarsal
(probably most important in men
190
), a rounded articulation,
and metatarsus primus varus, play an important role. These
variants increase the vulnerability to first-ray hypermobility,
pes planus, and ligamentous laxity.
The toe is at risk if loading is increased on the medial
side. If the forefoot is in a narrow toe-box or pronated because
of a hypermobile first ray or pes planus, the altered muscle pull
can combine with the ground reaction forces and be sufficient
to result in repetitive injury to the medial tissues. There is a lack
of evidence of a sufficient scientific level to support or disprove
the role of pes planus, first-ray instability
11
, or functional hallux
limitus, although all have some intellectual appeal and possibly
some basis in terms of treatment response.
In the normal foot, there is a tendency for the great toe to
be pulled into valgus, but the static restraints (the ligaments
and the sesamoid apparatus) act like reins, preventing this
tendency
135
. The muscles attached to the base of the phalanx
help to control the metatarsal head. Once the metatarsal head
starts to escape, this control diminishes and the muscles may
become deforming forces instead
191
. The deep transverse lig-
ament (and to an extent the adductor) holds the phalanx in
place, while the incompetent medial sesamoid ligament and
medial collateral ligament allow the metatarsal head to drift
into varus.
We know that poor footwear is a risk, and yet few people
who wear high-fashion ladies’ shoes develop hallux valgus. The
same can be said of the other potential causes. The true answer
lies in the interplay of the various intrinsic and extrinsic factors
that come together in any one particular foot. Without large-
scale population studies or longitudinal studies, there will al-
ways be some unanswered questions on the true pathogenesis
and optimal treatment of hallux valgus.
n
A.M. Perera, FRCS(Orth)
Lyndon Mason, MRCS(Eng)
University Hospital of Wales,
Cardiff, CF14 4XB, UK.
E-mail address for A.M. Perera: footandanklesurgery@gmail.com
M.M. Stephens, FRCSI
Cappagh National Orthopaedic Hospital,
Finglas, Dublin 11, Ireland
References
1. Durlacher L. A treatise on corns, bunions, the diseases of nails, and the general
management of the feet. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard; 1845. p 72.
2. Hueter C. Klinik der Gelenkkrankheiten mit Einschluß der Orthop¨
adie. Vol 2.
Leipzig: Verlag Von F. C. W. Vogel; 1877. p 10-1.
3. Sim-Fook L, Hodgson AR. A comparison of foot forms among the non-shoe
and shoe-wearing Chinese population. J Bone Joint Surg Am.1958;40:
1058-62.
4. Eustace S, Williamson D, Wilson M, O’Byrne J, Bussolari L, Thomas M, Stephens M,
Stack J, Weissman B. Tendon shift in hallux valgus: observations at MR imaging.
Skeletal Radiol. 1996;25:519-24.
5. Stephens MM. Pathogenesis of hallux valgus. Eur J Foot Ankle Surg. 1994;1:
7-10.
6. Wilson DW. Treatment of hallux valgus and bunions. Br J Hosp Med. 1980;24:
548-9.
7. Haines RW, McDougall A. The anatomy of hallux valgus. J Bone Joint Surg
Br.1954;36:272-93.
8. Stein HC. Hallux valgus. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1938;66:889-98.
9. McBride ED. A conservative operation for bunions. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1928;
10:735-9.
10. Morton DJ. Structural factors in static disorders of the foot. Am J Surg. 1930;
9:315-26.
11. Easley ME, Trnka HJ. Current concepts review: hallux valgus part 1: patho-
mechanics, clinical assessment and non-operative management. Foot Ankle Int.
2007;28:654-9.
12. Aper RL, Saltzman CL, Brown T. The effect of hallux sesamoid excision
on the flexor hallucis longus moment arm. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1996;325:
209-17.
13. Aper RL, Saltzman CL, Brown TD. The effects of hallux sesamoid resection
on the effective moment arm of the flexor hallucis brevis. Foot Ankle Int. 1994;15:
462-70.
14. Glasoe WM, Yack HJ, Saltzman CL. Anatomy and biomechanics of the first ray.
Physical Therapy. 1999;79:854-9.
15. Viladot A. The metatarsals. In: Wickland EH, editor. Disorders of the foot and
ankle. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co; 1991. p 1229-54.
16. Cohen BE. Hallux sesamoid disorders. Foot Ankle Clin. 2009;14:91-104.
17. Coughlin MJ, Mann RA, Saltzman CL, editors. Surgery of the foot and ankle. 8th
ed. Philadelphia: Mosby; 2007. Hallux valgus; p 283-362.
18. Inman VT. Hallux valgus: a review of etiologic factors. Orthop Clin North Am.
1974;5:59-66.
19. Wyss UP, McBride I, Murphy L, Cooke TD, Olney SJ. Joint reaction forces at the
first MTP in a normal elderly population. J Biomech. 1990;23:977-84.
20. Morton DJ. The human foot; its evolution, physiology and functional disorders.
New York: Columbia University Press; 1935.
21. Phillips RD, Law EA, Ward ED. Functional motion of the medial column joints of
the foot during propulsion. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1996;86:474-86.
22. Ouzounian TJ, Shereff MJ. In vitro determination of midfoot motion. Foot Ankle.
1989;10:140-6.
23. Mizel MS. The role of the plantar first metatarsal cuneiform ligament in
weightbearing on the first metatarsal. Foot Ankle. 1993;14:82-4.
24. Roukis TS, Landsman AS. Hypermobility of the first ray: a critical review of the
literature. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2003;42:377-90.
25. Glasoe WM, Allen MK, Yack HJ. Measurement of dorsal mobility in the first
ray: elimination of fat pad compression as a variable. Foot Ankle Int. 1998;19:
542-6.
26. David RD, Delagoutte JP, Renard MM. Anatomical study of the sesamoid bones
of the first metatarsal. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1989;79:536-44.
27. Root ML, Orien WP, Weed JH. Normal and abnormal function of the foot. Vol 2.
Los Angeles: Clinical Biomechanics; 1977. Forefoot deformity caused by abnormal
subtalar joint pronation; p 349-460.
28. Phillips RD, Reczek DM, Fountain D, Renner J, Park DB. Modification of high-
heeled shoes to decrease pronation during gait. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1991;
81:215-9.
29. Yoshioka Y, Siu DW, Cooke TD, Bryant JT, Wyss U. Geometry of the first meta-
tarsophalangeal joint. J Orthop Res. 1998;6:878-85.
30. Shereff MJ, Bejjani FJ, Kummer FJ. Kinematics of the first metatarsophalangeal
joint. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1986;68:392-8.
31. Shereff MJ. Pathophysiology, anatomy, and biomechanics of hallux valgus.
Orthopedics. 1990;13:939-45.
32. Hetherington VJ, Carnett J, Patterson BA. Motion of the first metatarsophalan-
geal joint. J Foot Surg. 1989;28:13-9.
33. Mygind HB. Some views on the surgical treatment of hallux valgus. Acta Orthop
Scand. 1953;23:152-8.
34. Bojsen-Møller F, Lamoreux L. Significance of free-dorsiflexion of the toes in
walking. Acta Orthop Scand. 1979;50:471-9.
35. Dananberg HJ. Functional hallux limitus and its relationship to gait efficiency.
J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1986;76:648-52.
36. Brahm SM. Shape of the first metatarsal head in hallux rigidus and hallux
valgus. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1988;78:300-4.
1658
T
H E
J
O U R N A L O F
B
O N E
& J
O I N T
S
U R G E R Y
d
J B J S
.
O R G
V
O L U M E
9 3 - A
d
N
U M B E R
1 7
d
S
E P T E M B E R
7 , 2 0 1 1
T
H E
P
AT H O G E N E S I S O F
H
A L L U X
V
A L G U S
37. Coughlin MJ, Thompson FM. The high price of high-fashion footwear. Instr
Course Lect. 1995;44:371-7.
38. Snijders CJ, Snijder JG, Philippens MM. Biomechanics of hallux valgus and
spread foot. Foot Ankle. 1986;7:26-39.
39. Porter JL. Why operations for bunion fail with a description of one that does not.
Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1909;8:89.
40. Barnicot NA, Hardy RH. The position of the hallux in West Africans. J Anat.
1955;89:355-61.
41. MacLennan R. Prevalence of hallux valgus in neolithic New Guinea population.
Lancet. 1966;1:1398-400.
42. Kato T, Watanabe S. The etiology of hallux valgus in Japan. Clin Orthop Relat
Res. 1981;157:78-81.
43. Coughlin MJ. Roger A. Mann Award. Juvenile hallux valgus: etiology and treat-
ment. Foot Ankle Int. 1995;16:682-97.
44. Corrigan JP, Moore DP, Stephens MM. Effect of heel height on forefoot loading.
Foot Ankle. 1993;14:148-52.
45. Hughes J, Clark P, Jagoe RR, Gerber C, Klenerman L. The pattern of pressure
distribution under the weightbearing forefoot. Foot. 1991;1:117-24.
46. Hewitt D, Stewart AM, Webb JW. The prevalence of foot defects among wartime
recruits. Br Med J. 1953;2:745-9.
47. Viladot A. Metatarsalgia due to biomechanical alterations of the forefoot. Or-
thop Clin North Am. 1973;4:165-78.
48. Greer WS. Clinical aspect: relation to footwear. Lancet. 1938;232:1482-3.
49. Coughlin MJ, Jones CP. Hallux valgus: demographics, etiology, and radiographic
assessment. Foot Ankle Int. 2007;28:759-77.
50. Hung LK, Ho YF, Leung PC. Survey of foot deformities among 166 geriatric
inpatients. Foot Ankle. 1985;5:156-64.
51. Coste F, Desoille H, Illouz G, Chavy AL. [Locomotor apparatus and classical
dancing]. Rev Rhum Mal Osteoartic. 1960;27:259-67. French.
52. Einarsd´
ottir H, Troell S, Wykman A. Hallux valgus in ballet dancers: a myth? Foot
Ankle Int. 1995;16:92-4
53. Mann RA, Coughlin MJ. Hallux valgus—etiology, anatomy, treatment and sur-
gical considerations. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1981;157:31-41.
54. Frey C, Zamora J. The effects of obesity on orthopaedic foot and ankle pathol-
ogy. Foot Ankle Int. 2007;28:996-9.
55. Taranto J, Taranto MJ, Bryant AR, Singer KP. Analysis of dynamic angle of gait
and radiographic features in subjects with hallux abducto valgus and hallux limitus.
J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2007;97:175-88.
56. Kernozek TW, Elfessi A, Sterriker S. Clinical and biomechanical risk factors
of patients diagnosed with hallux valgus. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2003;93:
97-103.
57. Johnston O. Further studies of inheritance of hand and foot anomalies. Clin
Orthop. 1956;8:146-60.
58. Bonney G, Macnab I. Hallux valgus and hallux rigidus; a critical survey of oper-
ative results. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1952;34:366-85.
59. Spooner SK. Predictors of hallux valgus: a study of heritability [PhD thesis].
Leicester: University of Leicester; 1997.
60. Piqu´
e-Vidal C, Sol´
e MT, Antich J. Hallux valgus inheritance: pedigree research in
350 patients with bunion deformity. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2007;46:149-54.
61. Gottschalk FA, Sallis JG, Beighton PH, Solomon L. A comparison of the preva-
lence of hallux valgus in three South African populations. S Afr Med J. 1980;57:
355-7.
62. Saro C, Andr´
en B, Wildemyr Z, Fell¨
ander-Tsai L. Outcome after distal metatarsal
osteotomy for hallux valgus: a prospective randomized controlled trial of two
methods. Foot Ankle Int. 2007;28:778-87.
63. Thordarson D, Ebramzadeh E, Moorthy M, Lee J, Rudicel S. Correlation of hallux
valgus surgical outcome with AOFAS forefoot score and radiological parameters.
Foot Ankle Int. 2005;26:122-7.
64. Frey C, Thompson F, Smith J, Sanders M, Horstman H. American Orthopaedic
Foot and Ankle Society women’s shoe survey. Foot Ankle. 1993;14:78-81.
65. Shine IB. Incidence of hallux valgus in a partially shoe-wearing community. Br
Med J. 1965;1:1648-50.
66. Guti´
errez Carbonell P, Sebasti´
a Forcada E, Betoldi Lizier G. Factores mor-
fol´
ogicos que influyen en el hallux valgus. Revista de Orthpedia Traumatologı´a.
1998;42:356-62.
67. Ferrari J, Malone-Lee J. The shape of the metatarsal head as a cause of hallux
abductovalgus. Foot Ankle Int. 2002;23:236-42.
68. Ferrari J, Hopkinson DA, Linney AD. Size and shape differences between male
and female foot bones: is the female foot predisposed to hallux abducto valgus
deformity? J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2004;94:434-52.
69. Dykyj D, Ateshian GA, Trepal MJ, MacDonald LR. Articular geometry of the me-
dial tarsometatarsal joint in the foot: comparison of metatarsus primus adductus
and metatarsus primus rectus. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2001;40:357-65.
70. O’Connor K, Bragdon G, Baumhauer JF. Sexual dimorphism of the foot and
ankle. Orthop Clin North Am. 2006;37:569-74.
71. Ferrari J, Watkinson D. Foot pressure measurement differences between boys
and girls with reference to hallux valgus deformity and hypermobility. Foot Ankle Int.
2005;26:739-47.
72. Wilkerson RD, Mason MA. Differences in men’s and women’s mean ankle lig-
amentous laxity. Iowa Orthop J. 2000;20:46-8.
73. Coughlin MJ, Shurnas PS. Hallux valgus in men. Part II: first ray mobility after
bunionectomy and factors associated with hallux valgus deformity. Foot Ankle Int.
2003;24:73-8.
74. Clark HR, Veith RG, Hansen ST Jr. Adolescent bunions treated by the modified
Lapidus procedure. Bull Hosp Jt Dis Orthop Inst. 1987;47:109-22.
75. Coughlin MJ, Grebing BR, Jones CP. Arthrodesis of the first metatarsophalan-
geal joint for idiopathic hallux valgus: intermediate results. Foot Ankle Int. 2005;
26:783-92.
76. Coetzee JC, Resig SG, Kuskowski M, Saleh KJ. The Lapidus procedure as sal-
vage after failed surgical treatment of hallux valgus: a prospective cohort study.
J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;85:60-5.
77. Canale PB, Aronsson DD, Lamont RL, Manoli A 2nd. The Mitchell procedure for
the treatment of adolescent hallux valgus. A long-term study. J Bone Joint Surg Am.
1993;75:1610-8.
78. Carl A, Ross S, Evanski P, Waugh T. Hypermobility in hallux valgus. Foot Ankle.
1988;8:264-70.
79. McNerney JE, Johnston WB. Generalized ligamentous laxity, hallux abducto
valgus and the first metatarsocuneiform joint. J Am Podiatry Assoc. 1979;69:
69-82.
80. Shi K, Tomita T, Hayashida K, Owaki H, Ochi T. Foot deformities in rheumatoid
arthritis and relevance of disease severity. J Rheumatol. 2000;27:84-9.
81. Beighton P, Horan F. Orthopaedic aspects of the Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.
J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1969;51:444-53.
82. Coughlin MJ. Hallux valgus. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1996;78:932-66.
83. Mann RA, Coughlin MJ. Hallux valgus and complications of hallux valgus. In:
Mann RA, editor. Surgery of the foot. 5th ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 1986. p 167-296.
84. Myerson M, Allon S, McGarvey W. Metatarsocuneiform arthrodesis for man-
agement of hallux valgus and metatarsus primus varus. Foot Ankle. 1992;13:
107-15.
85. Hutton WC, Dhanendran M. The mechanics of normal and hallux valgus feet—a
quantitative study. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1981;157:7-13.
86. Scott G, Menz HB, Newcombe L. Age-related differences in foot structure and
function. Gait Posture. 2007;26:68-75.
87. Turan I. Correlation between hallux valgus angle and age. J Foot Surg. 1990;
29:327-9.
88. Piggott H. The natural history of hallux valgus in adolescence and early adult life.
J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1960;42:749-60.
89. Bryant A, Tinley P, Singer K. A comparison of radiographic measurements in
normal, hallux valgus, and hallux limitus feet. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2000;39:39-43.
90. Griffiths TA, Palladino SJ. Metatarsus adductus and selected radiographic
measurements of the first ray in normal feet. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1992;82:
616-22.
91. Hardy RH, Clapham JC. Hallux valgus; predisposing anatomical causes. Lancet.
1952;1:1180-3.
92. Kilmartin TE, Barrington RL, Wallace WA. Metatarsus primus varus. A statistical
study. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1991;73:937-40.
93. La Reaux RL, Lee BR. Metatarsus adductus and hallux abducto valgus: their
correlation. J Foot Surg. 1987;26:304-8.
94. Munuera PV, Dominguez G, Polo J, Rebollo J. Medial deviation of the first
metatarsal in incipient hallux valgus deformity. Foot Ankle Int. 2006;27:1030-5.
95. Humbert JL, Bourbonni`
ere C, Laurin CA. Metatarsophalangeal fusion for hallux
valgus: indications and effect on the first metatarsal ray. Can Med Assoc J. 1979;
120:937-41.
96. Banks AS, Hsu YS, Mariash S, Zirm R. Juvenile hallux abducto valgus associ-
ation with metatarsus adductus. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1994;84:219-24.
97. Pontious J, Mahan KT, Carter S. Characteristics of adolescent hallux
abducto valgus. A retrospective review. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1994;84:
208-18.
98. Wynne-Davies R. Family studies and the causes of congenital clubfoot. Talipes
equinovarus, talipes calcaneo-valgus and metatarsus varus. J Bone Joint Surg Br.
1964;46:445-63.
99. Maldin RA. Axial rotation of the first metatarsal as a factor in hallux valgus. J Am
Podiatry Assoc. 1972;62:85-93.
100. Ferrari J, Malone-Lee J. A radiographic study of the relationship between
Dostları ilə paylaş: |